<p>Winchester Palace was a 12th-century palace which served as the London townhouse of the Bishops of Winchester. It was located on the south bank of the River Thames in what is now the London Borough of Southwark, near the medieval priory which later became Southwark Cathedral. Remains of the demolished palace survive on the site today.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Southwark in the county of Surrey was formerly the largest manor in the Diocese of Winchester and the Bishop of Winchester was a major landowner in the area. He was a great power in the land, and traditionally served as the king&#39;s royal treasurer, performing the function of the modern Chancellor of the Exchequer. He thus frequently needed to attend the king both at his court in Westminster, at the Tower of London and also was required to attend Parliament with other bishops and major abbots. The city of Winchester had been the capital of the Saxon kings of England. For that purpose, Henry of Blois built the palace as his comfortable and high-status London residence. Most of the other English bishops similarly had episcopal palaces in London, most notably Lambeth Palace, residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury.</p><br>
<p>The palace remained in use until the 17th century, when it was divided into tenements and warehouses, but was mostly destroyed by fire in 1814. Part of the great hall, and the west gable end with its rose window became more visible after a 19th-century fire and 20th-century redevelopment. It is believed that the great hall was built in about 1136.</p><br>
<p>The hall was enlarged and the rose window built in the 14th century, possibly by Bishop William of Wykeham (reigned 1367&ndash;1398).</p><br>
<p>Below the hall was a richly decorated vaulted cellar with direct access to a wharf on the River Thames for bringing in supplies. Royal visitors were entertained at the palace, including King James I of Scotland on his wedding to Joan Beaufort (niece of the then bishop, Cardinal Henry Beaufort) in 1424. The palace was arranged around two courtyards. Other buildings within the site included a prison, a brewery and a butchery. The palace environs comprised a garden, a tennis court and a bowling alley.</p><br>
<p>During the Civil War Sir Thomas Ogle was imprisoned here, during which time he tried to draw Thomas Devenish, a member of John Goodwins Independent Congregation, into a royalist plot to split the Parliamentarian Independents from the Presbyterians in order to assist Charles Is numbers in Parliament.</p><br>
<h2>The Clink Liberty</h2><br>
<p>Associated with the palace was the Liberty of the Clink which also lay on the south bank of the River Thames, an area free from the jurisdiction of the City of London. It therefore became an area where activities which were suppressed in the City could flourish openly. Thus gaming houses, bowling alleys, theatres and brothels abounded. It took its name from the notorious Clink prison which lay within the Liberty and gave rise to the slang expression "in the clink" (i.e. in prison). The Bishops of Winchester received rents from the numerous brothels, leading to the local prostitutes being known as "Winchester geese".</p><br>
<h2>Present day</h2><br>
<p>The remains of Winchester Palace are listed as a Scheduled Monument and are managed by English Heritage.</p><br>
<p>Drei Schwestern  is a mountain located on the border of Austria and Liechtenstein. It forms a natural boundary between Liechtenstein and the Austrian state of Vorarlberg.</p><br>
<p>The Three Sisters are a three peaked mountain chain in the Rätikon, a mountain range of the Western Central Alps. The highest peak, the Great Sister, is 2,053m above sea level. The Middle Sister, located north-east of it reaches a height of 2,048m, and the north-eastern Little Sister 2,034m high.</p><br>
<p>The three peaks mark the border between Feldkirch in Austria and Liechtenstein. Through a well developed road system they are easily accessible and are often climbed.</p><br>
<p>The first ascent was probably made by hunters. The first recorded ascent was on the 10 June 1870 by John Sholto Douglass from Thüringen, Vorarlberg, with a hunter named Wieser from Frastanz.</p><br>
<h2>Location and Surroundings</h2><br>
<p>The chain of the Three Sisters is located in the extreme northwest of the Rätikon. The three peaks form a ridge that runs from north to south. To the west, the Three Sisters fall into the Alpine Rhine Valley, in the east to the Saminatal. The ridge to the south leads to the border summit Garsellakopf, and further south to Kuhgrat, which is entirely in Liechtenstein</p><br>
<p>The area is well developed for hikers through an extensive network of paths. The main peak can also be reached by rock climbing routes ranging from UIAA difficulty levels II to V. The north wall of the middle sister has routes with a UIAA level VI difficulty.</p><br>
<h2>Conservation</h2><br>
<p>The Vorarlberg region of the Three Sisters was granted a protected landscape status in 1976.</p><br>
<h2>Sources and Maps</h2><br>
<p>Hermann Braendle: Rätikon Reader, weiter Himmel, wilder Fels; Bergwandern im Rätikon. Bucher, Hohenems / Wien 2009.</p><br>
<p>Manfred Hunziker: Ringelspitz / Arosa / Rätikon, Vom Pass dil Segnas zum Schlappiner Joch, Verlag des SAC, Bern 2010, (=Alpine Touren / Bündner Alpen).</p><br>
<p>Günther Flaig: Alpenvereinsführer Rätikon, Bergverlag Rother, München 1989,</p><br>
<p>Landeskarte der Schweiz 1:25.000, Blatt 1136: Drei Schwestern.</p><br>
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<p>The London Mithraeum, also known as the Temple of Mithras, Walbrook, is a Roman mithraeum that was discovered in Walbrook, a street in the City of London, during a building&#39;s construction in 1954. The entire site was relocated to permit continued construction and this temple of the mystery god Mithras became perhaps the most famous 20th-century Roman discovery in London.</p><br>
<h2>Excavation and artefacts</h2><br>
<p>The site was excavated by W. F. Grimes, director of the Museum of London, in 1954. The temple, initially hoped to have been an early Christian church, was built in the mid-3rd century and dedicated to Mithras or perhaps jointly to several deities popular among Roman soldiers. Then it was rededicated, probably to Bacchus, in the early fourth century. Found within the temple, where they had been carefully buried at the time of its rededication, were finely detailed third-century white marble likenesses of Minerva, Mercury the guide of the souls of the dead, and the syncretic gods Mithras and Serapis, imported from Italy. There were several coarser locally-made clay figurines of Venus, combing her hair. The artefacts recovered were put on display in the Museum of London.</p><br>
<p>Among the sculptures the archaeologists found was a head of Mithras himself, recognizable by his Phrygian cap. The base of the head is tapered to fit a torso, which was not preserved.</p><br>
<p>Artefacts found in Walbrook in 1889 probably came from the Mithraeum, according to the archaeologist Ralph Merrifield, although this was not identified at the time (Merrifield 1965, p. 179). One was a marble relief, 0.53 m tall, of Mithras in the act of killing the astral bull, the Tauroctony that was as central to Mithraism as the Crucifixion is to Christianity. On it Mithras is accompanied by the two small figures of the torch-bearing celestial twins of Light and Darkness, Cautes and Cautopates, within the cosmic annual wheel of the zodiac. At the top left, outside the wheel, Sol–Helios ascends the heavens in his biga; at top right Luna descends in her chariot. The heads of two wind-gods, Boreas and Zephyros, are in the bottom corners. It bears the inscription</p><br>
<p>which may be translated "Ulpius Silvanus, veteran soldier of the Second Augustan Legion, in fulfilment of a vow, makes this altar a vision" or "Ulpius Silvanus, veteran of the Second Legion Augusta, fulfilled his vow having become (a Mithraist) at Orange" (Collingwood and Wright 1965, No. 3).</p><br>
<p>Nearby were buried heads of the Roman goddess Minerva and a finely detailed bearded head of Serapis, Jupiter-like in his features but securely recognizable by the grain-basket, the modius, upon his head, a token of resurrection.</p><br>
<p>An inscription dateable AD 307–310 at the site</p><br>
<p>may be translated "For the Salvation of our lords the four emperors and the noble Caesar, and to the god Mithras, the Invincible Sun from the east to the west" (Collingwood and Wright 1965, no. 4).</p><br>
<h2>Relocation history</h2><br>
<p>The Roman temple, when it was originally built, would have stood on the east bank of the now covered-over River Walbrook, a key freshwater source in Roman Londinium. Nearby, in its former streambed, a small square hammered lead sheet was found, on which an enemy of someone named Martia Martina had inscribed her name backwards and thrown the token into the stream, in a traditional Celtic way of reaching the gods that has preserved metal tokens in rivers throughout Celtic Europe, from the swords at La Tène to Roman times. (Compare wishing well.) The temple foundations are very close to other important sites in the city of London including the historic London Stone, the Bank of England and London Wall. The original Mithraeum was built partly underground, recalling the cave of Mithras where the Mithraic epiphany took place.</p><br>
<p>The temple site was uncovered in September 1954 during excavation work for the construction of Bucklersbury House, a 14-storey modernist office block to house Legal & General. As a compromise between redesigning the new building and abandoning the archaeological site, the ruin was dismantled and moved 100 metres to Temple Court, Queen Victoria Street, where in 1962 the foundations were reassembled at street level for an open-air public display. The reconstruction was not accurate and drew criticism for the materials used. An interim report on the excavation included in W. F. Grimes, The Excavation of Roman and Mediaeval London (1968) was superseded by John Shepherd, The Temple of Mithras, Walbrook (an English Heritage monograph) (1998).</p><br>
<p>The Walbrook Square project was purchased by the Bloomberg company in 2010, which decided to restore the Mithraeum to its original site as part of their new European headquarters. Parallel to the construction work, Museum of London Archaeology led a team of over 50 archaeologists excavating the site between 2010-14. This effort recovered more than 14,000 items, including a large assembly of tools. The varied objects are thought to have been brought to the site in landfills and soils collected elsewhere and laid down to improve the marshy banks of the River Walbrook during the rebuilding of London after the Boudican revolt of AD 60 or 61.</p><br>
<p>The local waterlogged soil conditions then preserved even organic material like leather shoes and a large assembly of wooden writing tablets of which over 400 were found. The tablets originally held a layer of dark wax and messages were scratched into the wax with a stylus that revealed the paler wood underneath. The wax has perished, but the words were reconstructed from scratch marks left in the wood. Among the messages is the oldest financial document from London, dated AD 57, and an address from AD 65-70 containing the earliest mention of London.</p><br>
<p>Today the Mithraeum has been returned to the location of its discovery, 7 metres below the modern street level, where it is displayed with a selection of artefacts found on the site. The temple was moved a little west of its original position to preserve parts of the walls that were not uncovered in 1952-54 and are too fragile to display today. The ruins are reconstructed as they appeared at the end of the excavation in October 1954, reflecting the first building phase of around AD 240 without any later Roman additions to the site. A large majority of the stones and bricks are original. The wood, render and lime mortar are new, but based on mortar samples from contemporary Roman London structures. The new museum has opened to the public on 14th November 2017 as part of an exhibition space beneath the new Bloomberg European Headquarters building.</p><br>
<p>"Bloomberg SPACE returns the Roman Temple of Mithras to the location of its discovery in the heart of the City, beneath the site of Bloomberg’s new European Headquarters. This anticipated cultural hub will offer visitors an immersive experience of the ancient temple and a chance to see a collection of the remarkable Roman artefacts found during recent excavation. Visitors will also enjoy a series of contemporary art commissions responding to one of the UK’s most significant archaeological sites."</p><br>
<p>The Pityusic Islands, often referenced simply as the Pityuses , or commonly but informally  as the Pine Islands, is the name given collectively to the Balearic islands of Ibiza , Formentera, S&#39;Espalmador and other small islets in the Mediterranean Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The islands are situated approximately 100 km southwest of the island of Majorca, and approximately 80 km east of the Cap de la Nau in the Iberian Peninsula.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The first known name of the islands was the Ancient Greek geonym Πιτυοῦσσαι Pityûssai ("covered in pine trees").</p><br>
<p>From about 200 BCE, the islands were used as a base by Cilician pirates. They and a renegade Roman general, Quintus Sertorius, who had formed an alliance with the pirates, were driven out by a large Roman fleet, commanded by Caius Annius Luscus.</p><br>
<p>The two largest of the islands, under the names Ebyssus (Ibiza) and Ophiusis (Formentera), were listed in Claudius Ptolemy&#39;s Geography (2nd century CE). Ptolemy noted that Ebyssus had a town by the same name.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>The Pine Islands are sometimes grouped together as part of the Balearic Islands, or else considered separate with the Balearics proper being Mallorca and Menorca (which together with their islets form the Gymnesian Islands). Politically, they are part of the autonomous community of the Balearic Islands.</p><br>
<p>Initially, they were administratively part of the same insular council (of Ibiza and Formentera), but since 2007 they are now separated between the insular council of Ibiza and the insular council of Formentera (each one is also assimilated to a single comarca), which are two of the four main administrative subdivisions of the province (and autonomous community) of the Balearic Islands.</p><br>
<h2>Images Gallery</h2><br>
<h2>Flags and coats of arms</h2><br>
<p>Mount Kailash , Mount Kailasa or Gang Rinpoche, is a peak in the Kailash Range , which forms part of Transhimalaya in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China.</p><br>
<p>The mountain lies near the source of some of the longest Asian rivers: the Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra, and Ghaghara (a tributary of the Ganges). Mount Kailash which is located near Lake Manasarovar and Lake Rakshastal, is considered to be sacred in four religions: Bön, Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The mountain is known as “” (कैलास) in Sanskrit. The name also could have been derived from the word “” (केलास), which means "crystal".</p><br>
<p>In his Tibetan-English dictionary, Chandra (1902: p. 32) identifies the entry for kai la sha which is a loan word from Sanskrit kailāsa (Devanagari: कैलास).</p><br>
<p>The Tibetan name for the mountain is Gangs Rin-po-che . Gangs or Kang is the Tibetan word for snow peak analogous to alp or hima; rinpoche is an honorific meaning "precious one" so the combined term can be translated "precious jewel of snows".</p><br>
<p>Another local name for the mountain is Tisé mountain, which derives from ti tse in the Zhang-Zhung language, meaning "water peak" or "river peak", connoting the mountain&#39;s status as the source of the mythical Lion, Horse, Peacock and Elephant Rivers, and in fact the Indus, Yarlung Tsangpo/Dihang/Brahmaputra, Karnali and Sutlej all begin in the Kailash-Lake Manasarovara region.</p><br>
<h2>Religious significance</h2><br>
<h3>In Hinduism</h3><br>
<p>According to Hinduism, Shiva, the god of gods, resides at the summit of a legendary mountain named Kailāsa, where he sits in a state of perpetual meditation along with his wife Pārvatī. He is at once the Lord of Yoga and therefore the ultimate renunciate ascetic, yet he is also the divine master of Tantra.</p><br>
<p>According to Charles Allen, one description in the Vishnu Purana of the mountain states that its four faces are made of crystal, ruby, gold, and lapis lazuli.</p><br>
<h3>In Jainism</h3><br>
<p>In Jainism, Kailash is also known as Mount Meru. Ashtapada, the mountain next to Mt. Kailash, is the site where the first Jain Tirthankara, Rishabhanatha, attained moksha (liberation).</p><br>
<h3>In Buddhism</h3><br>
<p>Vajrayana Buddhists believe that Mount Kailash is the home of the buddha Cakrasaṃvara (also known as Demchok), who represents supreme bliss.</p><br>
<p>There are numerous sites in the region associated with Padmasambhava, whose tantric practices in holy sites around Tibet are credited with finally establishing Buddhism as the main religion of the country in the 7th–8th century AD.</p><br>
<p>It is said that Milarepa (c. 1052 – c. 1135), champion of Vajrayana, arrived in Tibet to challenge Naro Bön-chung, champion of the Bön religion of Tibet. The two magicians engaged in a terrifying sorcerers battle, but neither was able to gain a decisive advantage. Finally, it was agreed that whoever could reach the summit of Kailash most rapidly would be the victor. While Naro Bön-chung sat on a magic drum and soared up the slope, Milarepas followers were dumbfounded to see him sitting still and meditating. Yet when Naro Bön-chung was nearly at the top, Milarepa suddenly moved into action and overtook him by riding on sunlight, thus winning the contest. He did, however, fling a handful of snow on to the top of a nearby mountain, since known as Bönri, bequeathing it to the Bönpo and thereby ensuring continued Bönpo connections with the region.</p><br>
<h3>In Bön</h3><br>
<p>Bön, a religion native to Tibet, maintain that the entire mystical region and Kailash, which they call the "nine-story Swastika Mountain", is the axis mundi, Tagzig Olmo Lung Ring.</p><br>
<h2>Pilgrimage</h2><br>
<p>Every year, thousands make a pilgrimage to Kailash, following a tradition going back thousands of years. Pilgrims of several religions believe that circumambulating Mount Kailash on foot is a holy ritual that will bring good fortune. The peregrination is made in a clockwise direction by Hindus and Buddhists while Jains and Bönpos circumambulate the mountain in a counterclockwise direction.</p><br>
<p>The path around Mount Kailash is 52 km long. Some pilgrims believe that the entire walk around Kailash should be made in a single day, which is not considered an easy task. A person in good shape walking fast would take perhaps 15 hours to complete the entire trek. Some of the devout do accomplish this feat, little daunted by the uneven terrain, altitude sickness and harsh conditions faced in the process. Indeed, other pilgrims venture a much more demanding regimen, performing body-length prostrations over the entire length of the circumambulation: The pilgrim bends down, kneels, prostrates full-length, makes a mark with his fingers, rises to his knees, prays, and then crawls forward on hands and knees to the mark made by his/her fingers before repeating the process. It requires at least four weeks of physical endurance to perform the circumambulation while following this regimen. The mountain is located in a particularly remote and inhospitable area of the Tibetan Himalayas. A few modern amenities, such as benches, resting places and refreshment kiosks, exist to aid the pilgrims in their devotions. According to all religions that revere the mountain, setting foot on its slopes is a dire sin. It is a popular belief that the stairways on Mount Kailash lead to heaven.</p><br>
<p>Because of the Sino-Indian border dispute, pilgrimage to the legendary abode of Shiva was stopped from 1954 to 1978. Thereafter, a limited number of Indian pilgrims have been allowed to visit the place, under the supervision of the Chinese and Indian governments either by a lengthy and hazardous trek over the Himalayan terrain, travel by land from Kathmandu or from Lhasa where flights from Kathmandu are available to Lhasa and thereafter travel over the great Tibetan plateau by car. The journey takes four night stops, finally arriving at Darchen at elevation of 4,600 m, small outpost that swells with pilgrims at certain times of year. Despite its minimal infrastructure, modest guest houses are available for foreign pilgrims, whereas Tibetan pilgrims generally sleep in their own tents. A small regional medical center serving far-western Tibet and funded by the Swiss Ngari Korsum Foundation was built here in 1997.</p><br>
<p>Walking around the mountain—a part of its official park—has to be done on foot, pony or domestic yak, taking some three days of trekking starting from a height of around 15,000 ft past the Tarboche (flagpole) to cross the Drölma pass 18,200 ft, and encamping for two nights en route. First, near the meadow of Dirapuk gompa, some 2 to 3 km before the pass and second, after crossing the pass and going downhill as far as possible (viewing Gauri Kund in the distance).</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The region around Mount Kailash and the Indus headwaters area is typified by wide scale faulting of metamorphosed late Cretaceous to mid Cenozoic sedimentary rocks which have been intruded by igneous Cenozoic granitic rocks. Mt. Kailash appears to be a metasedimentary roof pendant supported by a massive granite base. The Cenozoic rocks represent offshore marine limestones deposited before subduction of the Tethys oceanic crust. These sediments were deposited on the southern margin of the Asia block during subduction of the Tethys oceanic crust prior to the collision between the Indian and Asian continents. Pete Winn, Science Director</p><br>
<p>Earth Science Expeditions. Accessed January 2014.</p><br>
<h2>Mountaineering</h2><br>
<p>In 1926, Hugh Ruttledge studied the north face, which he estimated was 6,000 ft (1,800 m) high and "utterly unclimbable" and thought about an ascent of the northeast ridge, but he ran out of time. Ruttledge had been exploring the area with Colonel R. C. Wilson, who was on the other side of the mountain with his Sherpa named Tseten. According to Wilson, Tseten told Wilson, "Sahib, we can climb that!... as he too saw that this represented a feasible route to the summit." Further excerpts from Wilsons article in the Alpine Journal (vol. 40, 1928) show that he was serious about climbing Kailash, but he also ran out of time. Herbert Tichy was in the area in 1936, attempting to climb Gurla Mandhata. When he asked one of the Garpons of Ngari whether Kailash was climbable, the Garpon replied, "Only a man entirely free of sin could climb Kailash. And he wouldnt have to actually scale the sheer walls of ice to do it – he&#39;d just turn himself into a bird and fly to the summit." Reinhold Messner was given the opportunity by the Chinese government to climb in the mid-1980s but he declined.</p><br>
<p>In 2001 the Chinese gave permission for a Spanish team to climb the peak, but in the face of international disapproval the Chinese decided to ban all attempts to climb the mountain. Reinhold Messner, who condemned the Spanish plans, said</p><br>
<p>Della Falls is a waterfall in Strathcona Provincial Park on Vancouver Island and is among the tallest waterfalls in Canada.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>Della Falls is located 60 km (37 mi) from the city of Port Alberni, British Columbia in Strathcona Provincial Park.</p><br>
<p>The only way to reach Della Falls, other than by helicopter, is by crossing the entire Great Central Lake by boat; the only road access to the lake is at the opposite side from Strathcona Park. After the 35 km (21 mi) crossing, there is a dock that marks the beginning of Strathcona Park, and a camping area which can be used as a base camp before trying the next 15 km (9 mi) ascent to the base of Della Falls. More campsites are available along the trail and near the base of the falls. The hike, part of which follows an old logging railway, takes about seven hours one way and is suitable for intermediate level hikers. It ranks 16th in the world in terms of vertical drop.</p><br>
<h2>Discovery</h2><br>
<p>In 1899, prospector and trapper Joe Drinkwater discovered Della Falls and named them after his wife. Drinkwater also built a 16 km (10 mi) hiking trail to the falls via Drinkwater Creek. Evidence of his gold mining operation, including an aerial tramway he built, can still be seen near the falls.</p><br>
<h2>Height</h2><br>
<p>With the highest total vertical drop, measured at 440 metres (1443 ft), Della Falls is considered by many to be the highest waterfall in Canada, though several other waterfalls in British Columbia are thought to exceed 600 metres (1969 ft): Alfred Creek Falls, Deserted River Falls, Francis Falls & Gold Creek Falls; this is not in vertical height, so they may not be considered the tallest.</p><br>
<p>North River is an alternate name for the southernmost portion of the Hudson River in the vicinity of New York City and northeastern New Jersey in the United States. The colonial name for the entire Hudson was given to it by the Dutch in the early seventeenth century; the term fell out of general use for most of the river&#39;s 300+ mile course during the early 1900s. However it still retains currency as an alternate or additional name among local mariners and others as well as appearing on some nautical charts and maps. The term is used for infrastructure on and under the river, such as the North River piers, North River Tunnels, and the North River Wastewater Treatment Plant.</p><br>
<p>At different times "North River" has referred to</p><br>
<p>the entire Hudson</p><br>
<p>the approximate 160-mile portion of the Hudson below its confluence with the Mohawk River, which is under tidal influence</p><br>
<p>the portion of it running between Manhattan and New Jersey</p><br>
<p>just the short length flowing between Lower Manhattan and Hudson County, New Jersey.</p><br>
<p>Its history is strongly connected to shipping industry in the Port of New York and New Jersey, which shifted primarily to Port Newark in the mid-20th century due to the construction of the Holland Tunnel and other river crossings and the advent of containerization.</p><br>
<p>The names for the lower portion of the river appear to have remained interchangeable for centuries. In 1909, two tunnels were under construction: one was called the North River Tunnels, the other, the Hudson Tubes. That year the Hudson-Fulton Celebration was held, commemorating Henry Hudson, the first European to record navigating the river, and Robert Fulton, the first man to use a paddle steamer in America, named the North River Steamboat, to sail up it, leading to controversy over what the waterway should be called.</p><br>
<p>Much of the shoreline previously used for maritime, rail, and industrial activities has given way to recreational promenades and piers. On the Hudson Waterfront in New Jersey, the Hudson River Waterfront Walkway runs for about 18 miles. In Manhattan, the Hudson River Park runs from Battery Park to 59th Street.</p><br>
<h2>Origin of the name and early usage</h2><br>
<p>The origin of the name North River is generally attributed to the Dutch. In describing the major rivers in the New Netherland colony, they called what is now the Hudson the North River, the Connecticut the Fresh River, and the Delaware the South River. Another theory is that the "North" River and "East" River were so named for the direction of travel they permitted once having entered the Upper New York Bay.</p><br>
<p>In 1808 the Secretary of the Treasury, Albert Gallatin, issued his report of proposed locations for transportation and communication internal improvements of national importance. The North River figures prominently among his proposals as the best route toward western and northern lands; similar routes were chosen for the Erie Canal and other early canals built by the state of New York. He notes the following in reference to the North and Hudson Rivers:</p><br>
<h3>"North River" on maps</h3><br>
<p>Hagstrom Maps, formerly the leading mapmaker in the New York metropolitan area, has labeled all or part of the Hudson adjacent to Manhattan as "North River" on several of its maps. For instance, on a 1997 Hagstrom Map of Manhattan, the stretch of river between Hudson County, New Jersey and Lower Manhattan (roughly corresponding to the location of the North River piers) was labeled "North River", with the label "Hudson River" used above Midtown Manhattan.</p><br>
<p>On a 2000 map of "Northern Approaches to New York City" (part of Hagstroms New York Road Map), the entire river adjacent to Manhattan was labeled "Hudson River (North River)", with just "Hudson River" (no parenthetical) appearing further north at Tappan Zee. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrations current charts call the lower river the "Hudson", and the United States Geological Survey lists "North River" as an alternative name of the Hudson River without qualifying it as any particular portion of the river.</p><br>
<h2>North River piers</h2><br>
<p>Piers along the Hudson shore of Manhattan were formerly used for shipping and berthing ocean-going ships. In shipping notices, they were designated as, for example, "Pier 14, North River". As with the river, the name "North River piers" has largely been supplanted by "Hudson River piers", or just by a pier and number, e.g., "Pier 54". Piers above Pier 40 have addresses approximately that of Manhattan&#39;s numbered streets plus 40 &ndash; thus, for example, North River Pier 86 is at West 46th Street.</p><br>
<p>Most of the piers that once existed in lower Manhattan fell into disuse or were destroyed in the last half of the 20th century. The remaining piers are Pier A at the Battery and piers ranging from Pier 25 at North Moore Street to Pier 99 at 59th Street. Many of these piers and the waterfront between them are part of the Hudson River Park which stretches from 59th Street to the Battery. The park, a joint project between New York City and New York State commenced in 1998, consists of several non-contiguous parcels of land and piers totaling 125 acre, plus another 400 acre of the river itself. Several piers were rebuilt for adaptive re-use as part of the park project, with approximately 70% of the planned work complete by 2011.</p><br>
<h3>Historical and current use</h3><br>
<p>Pier A is a designated national and New York City landmark. The building on the pier dates to 1886, and was used by the city&#39;s Department of Docks, Harbor Police, and was later a fireboat station. The pier was closed and renovated from 1992 to November 2014, after which it reopened.</p><br>
<p>What little remained of Piers 1 through 21 were buried under landfill from the World Trade Center construction project in 1973 and turned into Battery Park City.</p><br>
<p>Pier 25 is a sports and docking facility at the foot of North Moore Street and part of Hudson River Park.</p><br>
<p>Pier 34 is a pair of narrow piers which connect to a ventilation building for the Holland Tunnel.</p><br>
<p>Pier 40 contains various playing fields, long-term parking spaces and the Trapeze School of New York on the roof (during the summer).</p><br>
<p>Christopher Street Pier is part of Hudson River Park.</p><br>
<p>Pier 51 houses water-themed playgrounds, part of Hudson River Park.</p><br>
<p>Pier 52 and 53, opposite Gansevoort Street, form the "Gansevoort Peninsula", created with landfill. This peninsula is home to the last vestige of what was once Thirteenth Avenue in Manhattan. The peninsula is currently a Sanitation Department storage and parking facility. At the end of Pier 53 is the FDNY&#39;s Marine 1 fireboat facility. The facility occupies a new building completed in 2011.</p><br>
<p>Pier 55 is not in use. Plans arose in November 2014 for a new park designed by Heatherwick Studio, with estimates of the 2.3 acre park between $130 million with plans to give up to $130 million. The park, a partnership between Diller and von Furstenberg&#39;s foundation, the city and state, and Hudson River Park Trust, was to float above the water on 300 concrete pillars. In September 2017, plans for the park were scrapped after legal challenges and rising cost estimates. In October 2017, the proposal was revived in exchange for Governor Andrew Cuomo agreeing to complete the remaining 30% of the incomplete Hudson River Park.</p><br>
<p>Pier 57 was built to a unique concrete design in 1952 to replace a burned wooden structure. It has served as a shipping terminal and a bus depot, but has been vacant since 2003. It is currently under development as a commercial and retail complex anticipated to re-open in 2018.</p><br>
<p>The Chelsea Piers entertainment complex is located at piers 59 through 62, from West 17th to West 22nd Street. In the early 1900s, Chelsea Piers was used by the Cunard and White Star lines, and was the intended destination of the Titanic as well as the final berth of the Lusitania.</p><br>
<p>Pier 63 was the location of a barge formerly serving the Erie-Lackawanna Railroad, now situated at Pier 66a.</p><br>
<p>Pier 66 has a public boathouse and is also the home of Pier 66 Maritime.</p><br>
<p>Pier 76 is home to New York City car tow pound for Manhattan.</p><br>
<p>Pier 78 is used by NY Waterway.</p><br>
<p>Pier 79 is the West Midtown Ferry Terminal, used by NY Waterway. Pier 79 connects to a Lincoln Tunnel vent shaft.</p><br>
<p>Pier 83 is used by Circle Line Sightseeing Cruises.</p><br>
<p>Pier 84 is a stop for New York Water Taxi and has a bicycle rental shop and other businesses serving primarily tourists as well as a playground.</p><br>
<p>Pier 86 is home to the Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum, the centerpiece of which is the USS Intrepid, an aircraft carrier that served from World War II to the Vietnam War. This pier once served as the passenger ship terminal for the United States Lines.</p><br>
<p>Piers 88 through 90 are part of the New York Passenger Ship Terminal, where a number of modern cruise ships and ocean liners dock. In 1942, the USS Lafayette (formerly SS Normandie) caught fire at Pier 88, remaining capsized there for a year.</p><br>
<p>Piers 92 and 94 were formerly part of the Passenger Ship Terminal and now house a convention center, currently the second-largest exhibition hall in New York City.</p><br>
<p>Piers 96 and 97 are part of Hudson River Park.</p><br>
<p>Pier 98 is used for Con Edison employee car parking, a training facility and delivery by barge and storage of fuel oil.</p><br>
<p>Pier 99 houses the West 59th Street Marine Transfer Station, used by the New York City Sanitation Department.</p><br>
<h2>Railroads and ferries</h2><br>
<p>Prior to the opening of the North River Tunnels and the Hudson and Manhattan Railroad tubes in the early 1900s, passengers and freight were required to cross the river for travel to points east. This led to an extensive network of intermodal terminals, railyards, ferry slips, docks, barges, and carfloats. The west shore of the river from the mid 19th to the mid 20th century was home to expansive facilities operated by competing railroads. Most are now gone, allowing for public access to the waterfront at piers, parks, promenades and marinas along the Hudson River Waterfront Walkway. New ferry slips and terminals exclusively for pedestrian use have been built.</p><br>
<p>Communipaw Terminal was in operation from 1864 to 1967. It was owned by the Central Railroad of New Jersey and also hosted trains of the Baltimore and Ohio and the Reading Company. The CRRNJs main ferry ran to pier 11 at Liberty Street. The historic landmark is now a major feature of Liberty State Park and ferry terminal for service to Ellis Island and Liberty Island. The terminal is adjacent to the Big Basin of the Morris Canal (used to ship anthracite from the mines of Pennsylvania) which entered the harbor at the rivers mouth.</p><br>
<p>Pennsylvania Railroad Station was the location of the first waterfront terminal in 1834, and its larger successor was used until 1961. Regular ferry service from Paulus Hook had begun in the early Dutch colonial period. The original station was built by the New Jersey Railroad to meet the world&#39;s first steam ferry service which had been initiated in 1812 by Robert Fulton and Robert Livingston. During the Pennsylvania Railroad era in the 20th century the station was called Exchange Place, local nomenclature for the streetcar terminus and Hudson and Manhattan Railroad tube station. The main ferry ran to Cortlandt Street. The district is now sometimes known as Wall Street West due to the concentration of financial concerns and skyscrapers located there. Today ferry service travel to Battery Park City Ferry Terminal, Pier 11 at Wall Street, and the West Midtown Ferry Terminal.</p><br>
<p>Pavonia Terminal operated from 1861 to 1958. The terminal, completed in 1889 by the Erie Railroad, was at the end of the Long Dock which extended into the partially landfilled Harsimus Cove. The Jersey City Terminal was also used by the New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway, but was called by the name given to the seventeenth century New Netherland settlement of Pavonia. Ferry service began in the 1840s. The main Pavonia Ferry later ran to Chambers Street and 23rd Street. Pavonia&#39;s Erie trains were moved to Hoboken Terminal between 1956 and 1958, and the ferries and terminal abandoned. The terminal and yards have now been developed into the residential and commercial district of Pavonia-Newport.</p><br>
<p>Hoboken Terminal is the last of the Hudson River terminals still in use and is now operated by New Jersey Transit. Regular ferry service was started in 1834 by John Stevens. Train service began in 1863 by the Morris and Essex Railroad and was taken over by Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad, which built the terminal in 1908. The DL&W later consolidated with the Erie to create the Erie Lackawanna Railway which, after becoming part of Conrail, operated until the state takeover in the 1970s. The main routes of the Hoboken Ferry ran to Barclay Street, Christopher Street and 23rd Street; these ferries operated until 1967. Today New York Waterway ferries travel to the Battery Park City Ferry Terminal, Pier 11 at Wall Street and the West Midtown Ferry Terminal.</p><br>
<p>Weehawken Terminal operated from 1884 to 1959 as the terminus for New York Central Railroad&#39;s West Shore Railroad division as well as for the New York, Ontario and Western Railway. The extensive Weehawken Yards also handle freight for the Erie Railroad with the New Jersey Junction Railroad. The New York Central Railroad 69th Street Transfer Bridge is now a historic site. The main Weehawken Ferry travelled directly across the river to 42nd Street and for a time was part of route of the Lincoln Highway. Other ferries included those to 14th Street and Cortland Street. The original tunnel under Bergen Hill is now used by the Hudson Bergen Light Rail. Ferry service is now provided from Weehawken Port Imperial to West Midtown Ferry Terminal, BPC Ferry Terminal, and Wall Street.</p><br>
<p>The New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway terminus in Shadyside, Edgewater was opened in 1894 for the shipment of coal and other products. This led to extensive landfilling and industrial growth including plants of Hess Oil and Chemical, Lever Brothers, Alcoa, and the Ford Motor Company. Many workers from Manhattan used the ferry from 125th Street to reach their jobs. The factories of Edgewater have been demolished, the brownfields redeveloped for residential, retail, and recreational uses. The ferry now travels from Edgewater Landing to West Midtown Ferry Terminal.</p><br>
<h2>Fixed crossings</h2><br>
<p>The last crossing to be built was the south tube of the Lincoln Tunnel in 1957, but in 1962, another deck was added to the George Washington Bridge. Since 2003, various proposals have been made to add a new train line. This includes an extension of the nearly-completed 7 Subway Extension, the canceled Access to the Region&#39;s Core, and the proposed Gateway Project.</p><br>
<p>Hammersmith was a civil parish and metropolitan borough in London, England. It was formed as a civil parish in 1834 from the chapelry of Hammersmith that had existed in the ancient parish of Fulham, Middlesex since 1631. The parish was grouped with Fulham as the Fulham District from 1855 until 1886, when separate parish administration was restored. In 1889 it became part of the County of London and in 1900 it became a metropolitan borough. It included Hammersmith, Wormwood Scrubs, Old Oak Common and Shepherd&#39;s Bush. In 1965 it was abolished and became the northern part of the London Borough of Hammersmith, since 1979 renamed the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Hammersmith was part of the ancient parish of Fulham, Middlesex which occupied broadly the same area as the current London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham in Greater London.</p><br>
<p>A chapel of ease was built for Hammersmith in 1631 and the chapelry developed its own independent vestry. This was recognised in 1834 when the parish of Hammersmith was split from the parish of Fulham. In 1855 the two parishes were combined for civil purposes as the Fulham District, governed by the Fulham District Board of Works. This coincided with the parish becoming part of the area of responsibility of the Metropolitan Board of Works.</p><br>
<p>In 1886 the district was dissolved and the parish was governed by the Hammersmith Vestry. It was transferred from the County of Middlesex to the County of London in 1889. The parish became a metropolitan borough in 1900 and the Hammersmith Vestry became Hammersmith Borough Council.</p><br>
<p>In 1965 it was merged with the Metropolitan Borough of Fulham to form the London Borough of Hammersmith and was renamed Hammersmith and Fulham in 1979. The new London borough council retained Hammersmith&#39;s motto of Spectemur Agendo, although it was spelled out in English ("Let us be judged by our acts") in the new coat of arms for the first few years.</p><br>
<h2>Coat of arms</h2><br>
<p>The coat of arms of the Metropolitan Borough of Hammersmith was granted in 1897. It was Per pale azure and gules on a chevron or between in chief two cross crosslets and in base a scallop argent, three horseshoes of the second. The cross crosslets come from the arms of Edward Latymer, who founded schools in Hammersmith in the seventeenth century which later evolved into Latymer Upper School and the Godolphin and Latymer School (both feature cross crosslets in their coats of arms). The horseshoes come from the arms of brickmaker Nicholas Crisp, who introduced his technique into Hammersmith and who helped build a chapel, which was to become Hammersmith&#39;s parish church of Saint Paul; and the scallop comes from the arms of George Pring, a surgeon who projected Hammersmith Bridge. The crest was a castle tower surmounted by two hammers, a pun on the name Hammersmith.</p><br>
<h2>Poor law</h2><br>
<p>With the introduction of the New Poor Law the parish became part of the Kensington Poor Law Union in 1837. From 1845, it was grouped with Fulham as the Fulham Poor Law Union. In 1889 Hammersmith became a single parish for poor law purposes and this lasted until the boards of guardians were abolished in 1930.</p><br>
<h2>Population and area</h2><br>
<p>The borough covered 2,286 acre. It included Hammersmith, Wormwood Scrubs, Old Oak Common and Shepherd&#39;s Bush.</p><br>
<p>The population in each census was:</p><br>
<p>Hammersmith Vestry 1801–1899</p><br>
<p>Metropolitan Borough 1900–1961</p><br>
<h2>Politics</h2><br>
<p>Under the Metropolis Management Act 1855 any parish that exceeded 2,000 ratepayers was to be divided into wards; however the parishes of Fulham District Board of Works did not exceed this number so were not divided into wards.</p><br>
<p>In 1873 the population had increased enough for the parish of Hammersmith to be divided into three wards (electing vestrymen): North (24), Centre (27) and South (21).</p><br>
<p>In 1894 as its population had increased the newly incorporated vestry was re-divided into six wards (electing vestrymen): No. 1 (12), No. 2 (18), No. 3 (15), No. 4 (15), No. 5 (6) and No. 6 (6).</p><br>
<p>The metropolitan borough was divided into seven wards for elections: No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, No. 5, No. 6 and No. 7.</p><br>
<h3>Borough council</h3><br>
<h3>Parliament constituency</h3><br>
<p>For elections to Parliament, the borough was represented by one constituency:</p><br>
<p>Hammersmith</p><br>
<p>In 1918 the borough&#39;s representation was increased to two seats:</p><br>
<p>Hammersmith North</p><br>
<p>Hammersmith South</p><br>
<p>In 1955 the borough&#39;s representation was reduced to one and a half seats, when part of it was merged with Fulham:</p><br>
<p>Barons Court</p><br>
<p>Hammersmith North</p><br>
<p>The Chief Jean Baptiste de Richardville House was built near Fort Wayne, Indiana, in 1827. Subsidized by the USA federal government through the 1826 Treaty of Mississinwas, it is believed to be one of only three treaty houses built east of the Mississippi River. It was designated a National Historic Landmark on March 2, 2012.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Chief Richardville, the principal chief of the Miami from 1812 until his death in 1841, signed several treaties with the United States government as it negotiated with the Miami tribe for its eventual removal as a recognized nation. Lands were reserved for Richardville&#39;s personal use, and $600 was provided for the building of a home.</p><br>
<p>The Richardville Houses architecture reflects both Greek Revival and Federal styles. When completed, using both the governments and his own funds, Richardville&#39;s Fort Wayne home was the equal in style and grandeur of the homes of prominent white residents of the area at that time. The Allen County-Fort Wayne Historical Society acquired the house in 1991 with money donated by the Foellinger Foundation and the Ropchan Foundation.</p><br>
<p>Farther south and west lies the trading and meeting place where the Wabash River and the Wabash and Erie Canal intersected in Huntington, Indiana. Here is another home where Richardville lived - a white, two-story Greek Revival filled with period furniture and portraits of the owners. This is also the site where treaties were signed. Today, this house forms the centerpiece of the historic The Forks Of The Wabash park.</p><br>
<p>Dublin Bay  is a C-shaped inlet of the Irish Sea on the east coast of Ireland. The bay is about 10 kilometres wide along its north-south base, and 7 km in length to its apex at the centre of the city of Dublin; stretching from Howth Head in the north to Dalkey Point in the south. North Bull Island is situated in the northwest part of the bay, where one of two major inshore sand banks lay, and features a 5 km long sandy beach, Dollymount Strand, fronting an internationally recognised wildfowl reserve. Many of the rivers of Dublin reach the Irish Sea at Dublin Bay: the River Liffey, with the River Dodder flow received less than 1 km inland, River Tolka, and various smaller rivers and streams.</p><br>
<p>The metropolitan area of the city of Dublin surrounds three sides of the bay (the north, west, and south), while the Irish Sea lies to the east. Dublin was founded by the Vikings at the point where they were able to ford the River Liffey with the first wattle bridge up from the estuary. The city spread from its birthplace, around what is now the James&#39;s Gate area, out along the coastline, northeast towards Howth and southeast towards Dalkey.</p><br>
<p>UNESCO has designated Dublin Bay a biosphere reserve in recognition of its unique ecological habitat and biological diversity.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>The bay is rather shallow with many sandbanks and rocky outcrops, and was notorious in the past for shipwrecks, especially when the wind was from the east. Until modern times, many ships and their passengers were lost along the treacherous coastline from Howth to Dun Laoghaire, less than a kilometre from shore. Early maps of the bay carefully show narrow shipping channels and mooring areas.</p><br>
<p>The bay had two inshore sand banks, the North Bull and the South Bull. With the building of the Bull Wall, the North Bull began to build up rapidly, forming North Bull Island (often simply "Bull Island"). A southern wall had earlier been built - the Great South Wall - but did not result in island formation, the South Bull remaining today an area of mud flats and strand. In addition there are several offshore sandbanks, notably Kish Bank (on which a lighthouse stands).</p><br>
<h3>Coastline</h3><br>
<p>From north to south, Dublin Bay features beaches at Sutton Strand, Dollymount Strand on North Bull Island, Sandymount, Seapoint and south of Dun Laoghaire. The remaining coast is either rocky (with cliffs on Howth Head, for example) or mud coming up to sea walls. In most parts, the land slopes gently down to the sea, but aside from Howth Head, there are bluffs along much of the Raheny coastline, and the sharper slopes just inland at Monkstown and Old Dunleary.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Over 500 crew and passengers (mostly military personnel) were lost when the steamship was torpedoed and sunk by German U-Boat on 10 October 1918. She lies in 33 m of water at 53&deg; latitude, 18.88&deg; longitude.</p><br>
<p>In 1972, the Dublin Port and Docks Board proposed building an oil refinery in Dublin Bay. The plan was vigorously opposed by environmentalists, including Dublin City Councillor Seán D. Loftus, on the grounds that it posed a serious risk of pollution. Loftus, a lifelong campaigner for Dublin Bay, changed his name by deed poll to "Seán Dublin Bay Loftus" when standing for election to the Dáil. Although he was not elected, he succeeded in publicising the issue and the proposal was eventually turned down by the Minister for Local Government, James Tully. (Loftus later changed his name by deed poll to "Seán Dublin Bay Rockall Loftus" as part of a campaign to press the Irish Government to make a territorial claim to the Rockall islet off the coast of County Donegal). Loftus also led opposition to the 2002 and subsequent applications by the Dublin Port Company to fill in 52 acre of Dublin Bay. Other suggestions for the bay have included a proposal to build giant underwater gas storage tanks, and to infill the near-lagoon behind North Bull Island to form a leisure park.</p><br>
<h3>Infill</h3><br>
<p>In the summer of 2010, An Bord Pleanála refused permission to the Dublin Port Company to proceed with its plans to infill a further 52 acre of Dublin Bay. The proposed infill, which has been vehemently opposed by residents, politicians, environmentalists and others around the bay for over 20 years, was refused on one point. An Bord Pleanála rejected nine out of ten of its own inspector&#39;s recommendations for refusal, but refused permission on the basis that it was not satisfied that the proposed development would not adversely affect the integrity of the South Dublin Bay and River Tolka Estuary proposed Special Protection Area and adversely affect the natural heritage of Dublin Bay. Within a few months of the decision, the Dublin Port Company applied for and received a pre-application meeting with An Bord Pleanála. The Dublin Port Company has redrafted their proposal in relation to the SPA boundary and may resubmit an application for the project.</p><br>
<h2>Flooding</h2><br>
<p>Coastal flooding can occur at high tide at several points, notably the city side of Clontarf and Sandymount.</p><br>
<h2>Popular culture</h2><br>
<p>James Joyce set much of the action in his novel Ulysses around the bay, from the Forty Foot bathing place—in which the character Buck Mulligan washed on Bloomsday morning—to Howth, where Leopold Bloom made love to his wife Molly under the rhododendrons.</p><br>
<p>Homonhon Island is an island in the province of Eastern Samar, Philippines, on the east side of Leyte Gulf. The 20 km long island is part of the municipality of Guiuan.</p><br>
<p>Montoconan, an islet just off the northwest corner of Homonhon, is also part of the approximately 7,500 islands comprising the Philippine Archipelago.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>During the first circumnavigation of the globe, Ferdinand Magellan&#39;s three surviving vessels passed the Marianas, but did not land, even though he was out of food after crossing the Pacific Ocean. Yet he landed on the island of Homonhon on March 16, 1521, where his crew managed to gather some food despite Homonhon being uninhabited at that time. However, he was detected by the boats of Rajah Culambu of Limasawa, who guided him to Cebu, on April 7. Thus Rajah Calambu was an ally of the Datu of Cebu.</p><br>
<p>The Battle of Rennell Island  took place on 29–30 January 1943. It was the last major naval engagement between the United States Navy and the Imperial Japanese Navy during the Guadalcanal campaign of World War II. It occurred in the South Pacific between Rennell Island and Guadalcanal in the southern Solomon Islands.</p><br>
<p>In the battle, Japanese naval land-based torpedo bombers, seeking to provide protection for the impending evacuation of Japanese forces from Guadalcanal, made several attacks over two days on US warships operating as a task force south of this island. In addition to approaching Guadalcanal with the objective of engaging any Japanese ships that might come into range, the USA task force was protecting an Allied transport ship convoy carrying replacement troops there.</p><br>
<p>As a result of the Japanese air attacks on the task force, one USA heavy cruiser was sunk, a destroyer was heavily damaged, and the rest of the USA task force was forced to retreat from the southern Solomons area. Partly because they turned back the USA task force in this battle, the Japanese successfully evacuated their remaining troops from Guadalcanal by 7 February 1943, leaving it in the hands of the Allies and ending the battle for the island.</p><br>
<h2>Background</h2><br>
<p>On 7 August 1942, Allied forces (primarily USA) landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands. The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the USA and Australia, and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign. The landings initiated the six-month-long Guadalcanal campaign.</p><br>
<p>The last major attempt by the Japanese to drive Allied forces from Guadalcanal and Tulagi was defeated during the decisive Naval Battle of Guadalcanal in early November 1942. Thereafter, the Japanese Navy was able to deliver only subsistence supplies and a few replacement troops to Japanese Army forces on Guadalcanal. Because of the threat from Allied aircraft based at Henderson Field on Guadalcanal, plus nearby USA aircraft carriers, the Japanese delivered these supplies at night, usually by destroyer or submarine, in operations the Allies called the "Tokyo Express." However, these supplies and replacements were not enough to sustain Japanese troops on the island, who by 7 December 1942, were losing about 50 men each day from malnutrition, disease, and Allied ground or air attacks. On 12 December 1942, the Japanese Navy proposed that Guadalcanal be abandoned. Despite initial opposition from Army leaders, who still hoped that Guadalcanal could eventually be retaken from the Allies, on 31 December 1942 the Imperial General Headquarters, with approval from the Emperor, agreed to evacuate all Japanese forces from the island and establish a new line of defense for the Solomons on New Georgia.</p><br>
<p>The evacuation was code-named Operation Ke (ケ号作戦), and was scheduled to begin on 14 January 1943. An important element in the plan was an air superiority campaign starting 28 January 1943, to inhibit Allied aircraft or warships from disrupting the final stage of the Ke operation, which was the actual evacuation of all Japanese troops from Guadalcanal.</p><br>
<p>Allied forces misinterpreted the Ke preparations as the beginning of another Japanese offensive to try to retake Guadalcanal. At the same time, Admiral William Halsey, Jr., the Allied theatre commander, was under pressure from his superiors to complete the replacement of the 2nd Marine Regiment, which had been in combat on Guadalcanal since August, with fresh Army troops. Halsey hoped to take advantage of what he believed was an impending Japanese offensive to draw Japanese naval forces into a battle, while at the same time delivering the replacement Army troops to Guadalcanal. On 29 January 1943, Halsey sent five task forces toward the southern Solomons area to cover the relief convoy and to engage any Japanese naval forces that came into range. These five task forces included two fleet carriers, two escort carriers, three battleships, 12 cruisers, and 25 destroyers.</p><br>
<p>In front of this array of task forces was Task Group 62.8, the troop convoy of four transports and four destroyers. Ahead of the troop convoy, between Rennell Island and Guadalcanal, was Task Force 18 (TF 18) Rear Admiral Robert C. Giffen, a close support group of heavy cruisers, and, light cruisers, and; escort carriers and; and eight destroyers. Admiral Giffen commanded TF 18 from Wichita. A fleet carrier task force—centered on the carrier —steamed about 250 mi behind TG 62.8 and TF 18. The other fleet carrier and battleship task forces were about 150 mi farther back. Admiral Giffen, with Wichita and the two escort carriers, had just arrived in the Pacific after participating in Operation Torch in the North African Campaign. Also, Chicago had just arrived back in the South Pacific, after completing repairs from damage suffered during the Battle of Savo Island almost six months before.</p><br>
<h2>Battle</h2><br>
<h3>Prelude</h3><br>
<p>In addition to protecting the troop convoy, TF 18 was charged with rendezvousing with a force of four USA destroyers, stationed at Tulagi, at 21:00 on 29 January in order to conduct a sweep up "The Slot" north of Guadalcanal the next day to screen the unloading of the troop transports at Guadalcanal. Wary of the threat from Japanese submarines, which Allied intelligence indicated were likely in the area, Giffen arranged his cruisers and destroyers for anti-submarine defense, not expecting an air attack. The cruisers were aligned in two columns, spaced 2,500 yd apart. Wichita, Chicago, and Louisville, in that order, were to starboard, and Montpelier, Cleveland, and Columbia were to port. The six destroyers were in a semicircle 2 mi ahead of the cruiser columns.</p><br>
<p>Giffens force was tracked by Japanese submarines, who reported its location and movement. Around mid-afternoon, based on the submarine reports, 16 Mitsubishi G4M Type 1 bombers from the 705 Air Group (705AG) and 16 Mitsubishi G3M Type 96 bombers from the 701 Air Group (701AG) took off from Rabaul carrying torpedoes to attack Giffens force. One Type 96 turned back with engine trouble, leaving 31 bombers in the attack force. The leader of the 705AG aircraft was Lieutenant Tomō Nakamura and Lieutenant Commander Joji Hagai commanded the 701AG planes.</p><br>
<h3>Action on 29 January</h3><br>
<p>At sunset, as TF 18 headed northwest 50 mi north of Rennell Island and 160 mi south of Guadalcanal, several of Giffens ships detected unidentified aircraft on radar 60 mi west of their formation. Having previously insisted on absolute radio silence, Giffen gave no orders about what to do about the unidentified contacts, or any orders at all, for that matter. With the setting of the sun, TF 18s combat air patrol (CAP) from the two escort carriers returned to their ships for the night, leaving Giffen&#39;s ships without air cover.</p><br>
<p>The radar contacts were, in fact, the approaching 31 Japanese torpedo bombers, who circled around to the south of TF 18 so that they could attack from the east, with the black backdrop of the eastern sky behind them. From this direction, the Japanese bombers were hidden by the night sky, but Giffens ships were silhouetted against the twilight of the western horizon. The 705AG aircraft attacked first, beginning at 19:19. Nakamuras aircraft missed with all of their torpedoes and one was shot down by anti-aircraft fire from Giffen&#39;s ships.</p><br>
<p>Believing the attack was over, Giffen ordered his ships to cease zigzagging and continue towards Guadalcanal on the same course and at the same speed. Meanwhile, a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft began dropping flares and floatlights to mark the course and speed of TF 18 for the impending attack by Hagai&#39;s bombers.</p><br>
<p>At 19:38, 701AG attacked, planting two torpedoes in Chicago, causing heavy damage and bringing the cruiser to a dead stop. Another torpedo hit Wichita but did not explode. Two bombers were shot down by anti-aircraft fire, including Hagai&#39;s; he was killed. At 20:08, Giffen ordered his ships to reverse direction, to slow to 15 kn, and to cease firing their anti-aircraft guns. The absence of muzzle flashes concealed the ships from the Japanese aircraft, who all departed the area by 23:35. In pitch darkness, Louisville managed to take the crippled Chicago under tow and slowly headed south, away from the battle area, escorted by the rest of TF 18.</p><br>
<h3>Action on 30 January</h3><br>
<p>Halsey immediately took steps to try to protect Chicago, notifying the escort carriers to make sure they had a CAP in place at first light, ordering the Enterprise task force to approach and augment the escort carrier CAP, and sending the fleet tug to take over the tow from Louisville, which was accomplished at 08:00. Between daybreak and 14:00, numerous Japanese scout aircraft approached TF 18. Although they were all chased away by the CAP, they observed and reported the position of Chicago. At 12:15, a force of 11 Type 1 torpedo bombers from the 751 Air Group (751AG), based at Kavieng and staging through Buka, launched to attack the damaged USA cruiser. An Australian coastwatcher in the Solomon Islands warned the USA forces of the bombers, and estimated their arrival time as 16:00. However, Halsey ordered the other cruisers to leave Chicago behind and head for Efate in the New Hebrides. They departed at 15:00, leaving behind six destroyers to protect Chicago and Navajo.</p><br>
<p>At 15:40, Enterprise was 43 mi away from Chicago, with ten of her fighters forming a CAP over the damaged cruiser. At this time, four of the CAP fighters chased and shot down a scout Type 1 bomber. At 15:54, Enterprises radar detected the incoming bomber flight, and launched 10 more fighters. The escort carriers, however, had difficulties in getting their aircraft launched, and their aircraft did not attack the bombers until the engagement was over.</p><br>
<p>At first, the Japanese bombers appeared to be trying to approach and attack Enterprise but turned toward Chicago after six Enterprise CAP fighters began to engage them. Four other CAP fighters chased the 751AG aircraft as they entered the anti-aircraft fire from Chicagos escorting destroyers. Two of the bombers were shot down before they could release their ordnance. Six more were shot down moments later, but not before they dropped their torpedoes.</p><br>
<p>One torpedo hit the destroyer in her forward engine room, killing 22 of her crew and causing heavy damage. Chicago was hit by four torpedoes, one forward of the bridge and three others in her engineering spaces. Captain Ralph O. Davis of Chicago ordered the ship to be abandoned, and she sank, stern first, 20 minutes later. Navajo and the escorting destroyers rescued 1,049 survivors from Chicago, but 62 of her crew died. A final attack force of Japanese torpedo bombers failed to find the remaining USA ships. Navajo took La Vallette under tow, and all of the remaining ships of TF 18 made port at Espiritu Santo without further incident.</p><br>
<h2>Aftermath</h2><br>
<p>The Japanese widely publicized the results of the engagement, claiming to have sunk a battleship and three cruisers. The USA on the other hand, tried to conceal the loss of Chicago from the public for some time, with Admiral Chester Nimitz threatening to "shoot" any of his staff who leaked the loss of Chicago to the press. Halsey and Nimitz blamed Giffen for the defeat and so stated in Giffens official performance report for the period. The defeat and resulting recriminations did not affect Giffens career; he continued to lead Allied battleship and cruiser task forces in the Pacific until 1944 and was later promoted to Vice Admiral.</p><br>
<p>With Japanese aircraft engaged with TF 18, the Allied transports completed their mission of replacing the remaining Marines on Guadalcanal over the last two days in January 1943. During this time, the other Allied task forces, including the two fleet carrier task forces, took station in the Coral Sea, in anticipation of an expected Japanese offensive in the southern Solomons.</p><br>
<p>In reality, however, the Japanese completed the secret evacuation of their remaining forces from Guadalcanal (Operation Ke) over three nights between 2 and 7 February 1943. With TF 18 forced to retreat, very few Allied naval forces were left in the immediate Guadalcanal area, allowing the Japanese to retrieve most of their remaining ground forces. The Allies did not realize the evacuation was happening until it was over. Building on their success in securing Guadalcanal, the Allies continued their campaign in the Solomon Islands to its successful conclusion.</p><br>
<p>Mount Terror is a large shield volcano that forms the eastern part of Ross Island, Antarctica. It has numerous cinder cones and domes on the flanks of the shield and is mostly under snow and ice. It is the second largest of the four volcanoes which make up Ross Island and is somewhat overshadowed by its neighbor, Mount Erebus, 30 km to the west. Mt. Terror was named in 1841 by Sir James Clark Ross for his second ship, HMS Terror. The captain of Terror was Captain Francis Crozier who was a close friend of Ross.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The rocks at the summit have not been studied, but lower areas have been studied and rocks from those areas range from 0.82 to 1.75 million years old. Mount Terror shows no signs of volcanic activity more recent than that.</p><br>
<p>The first ascent of Mt. Terror was made by a New Zealand party in 1959.</p><br>
<p>Terror Point ({{coord|77|41|S|168|13|E|type:mountain}}), located just below Mt. Terror, is the eastern limit of Fog Bay, 6 km WNW of Cape MacKay on Ross Island. The name was first used by members of the British National Antarctic Expedition, 1901–04, and was apparently applied in association with Mt. Terror which overlooks this point from the northeast.</p><br>
<p>Terror Saddle ({{coord|77|31|S|168|5|E|type:mountain}}) is one of three prominent snow saddles on Ross Island, located c.1600 m between Mount Terra Nova and Mount Terror. Named in association with Mount Terror, which rises to 3262 m to the east of this saddle.</p><br>
<p>Terror Glacier ({{coord|77|37|S|168|3|E|type:mountain}}) is a large glacier between Mount Terra Nova and Mount Terror on Ross Island, flowing south into Windless Bight. So named by A.J. Heine of the New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition (NZGSAE), 1962–63, because of its association with Mount Terror.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>*Mount Terror is the stronghold of Russian monarchist revolutionaries in the 1894 science fiction novel Olga Romanoff by George Griffith.</p><br>
<p>*Mount Terror and Mount Erebus are mentioned in the 1936 novella "At the Mountains of Madness" by H.P.Lovecraft.</p><br>
<p>*Mount Terror is used as a location in the 2004 novel State of Fear by Michael Crichton.</p><br>
<p>Lake Kyoga  is a large shallow lake in Uganda, about 1,720 km&sup2; in area and at an elevation of 1,033 metres. The Victoria Nile flows through the lake on its way from Lake Victoria to Lake Albert. The main inflow from Lake Victoria is regulated by the Nalubaale Power Station in Jinja. Another source of water is the Mount Elgon region on the border between Uganda and Kenya. While Lake Kyoga is part of the Great Lakes system, it is not itself considered a great lake.</p><br>
<p>The lake reaches a depth of about 5.7 metres, and most of it is less than 4 metres deep. Areas that are less than 3 metres deep are completely covered by water lilies, while much of the swampy shoreline is covered with papyrus and water hyacinth. The papyrus also forms floating islands that drift between a number of small permanent islands. Extensive wetlands fed by a complex system of streams and rivers surround the lakes. Nearby Lake Kwania is a smaller lake but deeper.</p><br>
<p>Forty-six species of fish have been found in Lake Kyoga, and crocodiles are numerous.</p><br>
<p>Excessive El Niño rains in 1997&ndash;98 resulted in exceptionally high water levels, causing large islands of papyrus and water hyacinth mats to become dislodged on the lake and to accumulate at the lake&#39;s outlet into the Victoria Nile. This blockage caused the water level to become even higher, flooding about 580 square kilometres of the surrounding land (DWD 2002) and resulting in population displacement and severe socioeconomic damage. In 2004, the Egyptian government granted Uganda a gift of 13 million USD to streamline the flow of the Nile at Lake Kyoga., the outlet was still largely blocked.</p><br>
<p>Shing Mun River or Shing Mun Channel is a river in Sha Tin, Hong Kong.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The original Shing Mun River began at Needle Hill, and flowed into the former Tide Cove (Sha Tin Hoi), a shallow bay. In the 1970s, Tide Cove was reclaimed and turned to Sha Tin New Town. The river was extended through a 7 km long, 200 m wide artificial channel in the middle of the area to flow into Tolo Harbour. Other rivers that had originally flowed into Tide Cove are now tributaries of Shing Mun River in the form of concreted nullahs.</p><br>
<p>The Shing Mun River channel runs from the Tai Wai area, through the Sha Tin town centre to the Tolo Harbour. It has three main tributaries, namely Tai Wai Nullah, Fo Tan Nullah and Siu Lek Yuen Nullah. Along the Shing Mun River are high-rise residential, commercial and industrial buildings with numerous village type developments scattered around. Several bridges were built to connect the two sides of the Shing Mun River.</p><br>
<h2>Bridges</h2><br>
<p>There are several major bridges across the Shing Mun River:</p><br>
<p>Banyan Bridge on Fo Tan Road</p><br>
<p>Dragon Bridge on Sha Tin Road</p><br>
<p>Lion Bridge on Lion Rock Tunnel Road</p><br>
<p>Sandmartin Bridge on Sha Tin Rural Committee Road</p><br>
<p>Lek Yuen Bridge – a pedestrian bridge</p><br>
<h2>Pollution</h2><br>
<p>The Shing Mun River was once heavily polluted from the indiscriminate discharges from livestock, industrial, commercial and domestic sources. The total organic pollution load from these discharges amount to a population equivalent of 160,000 in the 1980s. At that time, hardly any living creatures were found in the river.</p><br>
<p>The water quality of Shing Mun River has improved from bad to good in terms of the Water Quality Index since 1993. Lifeforms including fish and invertebrates have also reappeared in the river. In 2001 bioremediation and dredging works began to further improve the river environment. Levels of odour-causing sulphides and E. coli subsequently dropped sharply. But the water quality is still threatened by the polluted condition of Tolo Harbour, which backflows into the Shing Mun River during high tide, causing contamination.</p><br>
<p>An artificial river bank was also built along a 250-metre section near Man Lai Court, where there are relatively severe sediment accumulations and odour problems.</p><br>
<p>In late 2015 the Fo Tan Nullah, which flows into the Shing Mun River, changed colours several times. In early December it turned an electric blue, while later in the month it was "partly grey and partly turquoise". Residents and green groups speculated on whether the pollution was caused by the illegal dumping of pigments or industrial waste. The Environmental Protection Department (EPD) and Drainage Services Department investigated but were unable to determine the cause of the pigmentation as of December 2015.</p><br>
<p>Aside from the colour changes in the Fo Tan Nullah, tests conducted in December 2015 by a private laboratory at the behest of Sha Tin District Councillor Scarlett Pong Oi-lan revealed that pollution had worsened in the Shing Mun River. The tests showed that the E. coli are 1,300 times the EPD standard, while water acidity and suspended solids are three times the standard. Pong said that the E. Coli concentration was at its highest level since 1995.</p><br>
<p>In early 2016 thousands of fish died in the river.</p><br>
<p>On 1 November 2016 the real estate company Link REIT was fined $15,000 for contravening the Water Pollution Control Ordinance because wastewater from the Mei Lam Shopping Centre, owned and managed by Link REIT, was being illegally discharged into the Shing Mun River. The company was ordered to rectify the situation immediately.</p><br>
<h2>Current usage</h2><br>
<p>Although the river is primarily designed for the drainage of storm water from Sha Tin with a catchment area of 37 km², it is also a popular place for recreational users such as rowers, anglers, riverside walkers and cyclists. There are continuous pedestrian promenades on both sides of the river.</p><br>
<p>Many species of trees has been planted along the riverside, such as the Chinese Banyan and a few cotton trees.</p><br>
<p>Shing Mun River is a popular place for water sports, such as: rowing, canoeing, kayaking and dragon boat racing. There are two boathouses in the river, located at Yuen Wo Road and Shek Mun respectively. The river has a standard of 2000 metres long for regattas.</p><br>
<p>Shangchuan Island also written  is the main island of Chuanshan Archipelago on the southern coast of China. Its name originated from São João . It is part of the Guangdong province, in the South China Sea. Located 14 km from the mainland, it is the largest island in the province. The largest island of the province used to be Hainan Island, which was carved out of Guangdong to form a separate province in 1988.</p><br>
<p>The population of the island is 16,320.</p><br>
<p>It is known in history for having been the place of death of St. Francis Xavier.</p><br>
<p>Administratively, it is a part of Chuandao which is one of the 16 "towns" of Taishan county-level city.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Shangchuan Island was one of the first bases established by the Portuguese off the China coast, during the 16th century. They abandoned this base after the Chinese government gave consent for a permanent and official Portuguese trade base at Macau in 1557.</p><br>
<p>The Spanish (Navarre) Jesuit missionary St. Francis Xavier died on the island on December 3, 1552, as he was waiting for a ship to take him to mainland China.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The island has been isolated from the mainland since the last ice age. It is located near Xiachuan Island, which lies west of Shangchuan. The two islands, together with smaller islets, form Chuanshan Archipelago.</p><br>
<p>Shangshuan Island has an area of 137.3 km² and a 217 km coastline.</p><br>
<p>Dalangwan</p><br>
<p>Shadi, a fishing port on the southwestern coast</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Shangchuan and Xiachuan have been established as a Tourism Open Integrated Experimental Zone (旅游开发综合试验区, pinyin: lǚyóu kāifā zōnghé shìyàn qū).</p><br>
<p>Feisha Beach Resort (飞沙滩旅游区) is a commercial tourist resort located on the island&#39;s eastern shore.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Shangchuan Island is linked by ferry to Guanghai, Haiyan (Shanju) and Xiachuan Island.</p><br>
<p>The Tsugaru Strait is a strait between Honshu and Hokkaido in northern Japan connecting the Sea of Japan with the Pacific Ocean. It was named after the western part of Aomori Prefecture. The Seikan Tunnel passes under it at its narrowest point 12.1 miles  between Tappi Misaki on the Tsugaru Peninsula in Aomori Prefecture, Honshu, and Shirakami Misaki on the Matsumae Peninsula in Hokkaido.</p><br>
<p>Japans territorial waters extend to three nautical miles (5.6 km) into the strait instead of the usual twelve, reportedly to allow nuclear-armed United States Navy warships and submarines to transit the strait without violating Japans prohibition against nuclear weapons in its territory.</p><br>
<p>The Tsugaru Strait has eastern and western necks, both approximately 20 km across with maximum depths of 200 m and 140 m respectively.</p><br>
<p>In the past, the most common way for passengers and freight to cross the strait was on ferries, approximately a four-hour journey.</p><br>
<p>On September 26, 1954, 1,172 lives were lost when the ferry Tōya Maru sank in the strait.</p><br>
<p>Thomas Blakiston, an English explorer and naturalist, noticed that animals in Hokkaido were related to northern Asian species, whereas those on Honshu to the south were related to those from southern Asia. The Tsugaru Strait was therefore established as a major zoogeographical boundary, and became known as the "Blakiston Line".</p><br>
<p>Mount Taranaki, or Mount Egmont, is an active but quiescent stratovolcano in the Taranaki region on the west coast of New Zealand&#39;s North Island. Although the mountain is more commonly referred to as Taranaki, it has two official names under the alternative names policy of the New Zealand Geographic Board. The 2,518 m mountain is one of the most symmetrical volcanic cones in the world. There is a secondary cone, Fanthams Peak , 1,966 m, on the south side. Because of its resemblance to Mount Fuji, Taranaki provided the backdrop for the movie The Last Samurai.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>For many centuries the mountain was called Taranaki by Māori. The Māori word tara means mountain peak, and naki is thought to come from ngaki, meaning "shining", a reference to the snow-clad winter nature of the upper slopes. It was also named Pukehaupapa and Pukeonaki by iwi who live in the region in ancient times.</p><br>
<p>Captain Cook named it Mount Egmont on 11 January 1770 after John Perceval, 2nd Earl of Egmont, a former First Lord of the Admiralty who had supported the concept of an oceanic search for Terra Australis Incognita. Cook described it as "of a prodigious height and its top cover&#39;d with everlasting snow," surrounded by a "flat country... which afforded a very good aspect, being clothed with wood and ".</p><br>
<p>When Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne made landfall off Taranaki on 25 March 1772 he named the mountain Pic Mascarin. He was unaware of Cook&#39;s earlier visit.</p><br>
<p>It appeared as Mount Egmont on maps until 29 May 1986, when the Minister of Lands ruled that "Mount Taranaki" would be an alternative and equal official name. The Egmont name still applies to the national park that surrounds the peak and geologists still refer to the peak as the Egmont Volcano.</p><br>
<h2>Volcanic activity</h2><br>
<p>Taranaki is geologically young, having commenced activity approximately 135,000 years ago. The most recent volcanic activity was the production of a lava dome in the crater and its collapse down the side of the mountain in the 1850s or 1860s. Between 1755 and 1800, an eruption sent a pyroclastic flow down the mountains northeast flanks, and a moderate ash eruption occurred about 1755, of the size of Ruapehus activity in 1995/1996. The last major eruption occurred around 1655. Recent research has shown that over the last 9,000 years minor eruptions have occurred roughly every 90 years on average, with major eruptions every 500 years.</p><br>
<h3>Hazards</h3><br>
<p>Taranaki is unusual in that it has experienced at least five of its major eruptions by the method of cone collapse. Few volcanoes have undergone more than one cone collapse. The vast volume of material involved in these collapses is reflected in the extensive ringplain surrounding the volcano. There is also evidence of lahars being a common result of eruption.</p><br>
<p>Much of the region is at risk from lahars, which have reached as far as the coast. A volcanic event is not necessary for a lahar: even earthquakes combined with heavy rain or snow could dislodge vast quantities of unstable layers resting on steep slopes. Many farmers live in the paths of such possible destructive events.</p><br>
<p>Although volcanic eruptions are notoriously chaotic in their frequency, some scientists warn that a large eruption is "overdue". Research from Massey University indicates that significant seismic activity is likely again in the next 50 years. Prevailing winds would probably blow ash east, covering much of the North Island, and disrupting air routes, power transmission lines and local water supplies.</p><br>
<h3>Older volcanoes in the area</h3><br>
<p>Taranaki sits on the remains of three older volcanic complexes that lie to the northwest. The Indo-Australian Plate is slowly moving relative to the magma source that feeds these volcanoes. This trend is reflected in Fanthams Peak, the newer secondary cone on the southeast side of Taranaki.</p><br>
<p>The oldest volcanic remnants consist of a series of lava plugs: Paritutu rock (156m), which forms part of New Plymouth&#39;s harbour, and the Sugar Loaf Islands close offshore. These have been dated at 1.75 million years.</p><br>
<p>On the coast 15 km southwest of New Plymouth is the Kaitake range (rising to 682m), last active approximately 500,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>Nearest to Taranaki is the Pouakai complex. Pouakai may have originated around the same time as Kaitake but remained active until about 240,000 years ago. Much of Pouakai&#39;s large ringplain was obliterated by the Egmont Volcano, the hills near Eltham being the only remnant to the south.</p><br>
<h2>Māori mythology</h2><br>
<p>According to Māori mythology, Taranaki once resided in the middle of the North Island, with all the other New Zealand volcanoes. The beautiful Pihanga was coveted by all the mountains, and a great battle broke out between them. Tongariro eventually won the day, inflicted great wounds on the side of Taranaki, and causing him to flee. Taranaki headed westwards, following Te Toka a Rahotu (the Rock of Rahotu) and forming the deep gorges of the Whanganui River, paused for a while, creating the depression that formed the Te Ngaere swamp, then heading north. Further progress was blocked by the Pouakai ranges, and as the sun came up Taranaki became petrified in his current location. When Taranaki conceals himself with rainclouds, he is said to be crying for his lost love, and during spectacular sunsets, he is said to be displaying himself to her. In turn, Tongariro&#39;s eruptions are said to be a warning to Taranaki not to return.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1865 the mountain was confiscated from Māori by the New Zealand Government under the powers of the New Zealand Settlements Act 1863, ostensibly as a means of establishing and maintaining peace amid the Second Taranaki War. The legislation was framed with the intention of seizing and dividing up the land of Māori "in rebellion" and providing it as farmland for military settlers. In 1839 the mountain had been climbed by the Swiss trained doctor and naturalist Ernst Dieffenbach. During his initial ascent, he identified the fast-flowing streams as being well suited to water driven mills. Dieffenbach was employed by the New Zealand Company to advise on the potential of land he explored in the North Island in 1839–40.</p><br>
<p>The mountain was returned to the people of Taranaki in 1978 by means of the Mount Egmont Vesting Act 1978, which vested it to the Taranaki Maori Trust Board. By means of the same Act, it was immediately passed back to the Government as a gift to the nation. The Waitangi Tribunal, in its 1996 report, Kaupapa Tuatahi, observed: "We are unaware of the evidence that the hapū agreed to this arrangement. Many who made submissions to us were adamant that most knew nothing of it." It cited a submission that suggested the political climate of 1975 was such that the board felt it was necessary to perform a gesture of goodwill designed to create a more favourable environment within which a monetary settlement could be negotiated.</p><br>
<h2>National park</h2><br>
<p>In 1881, a circular area with a radius of six miles (9.6 km) from the summit was protected as a Forest Reserve. Areas encompassing the older volcanic remnants of Pouakai and Kaitake were later added to the reserve and in 1900 all this land was gazetted as Egmont National Park, the second national park in New Zealand. With intensively-farmed dairy pasture reaching right up to the mostly-circular park boundary, the change in vegetation is sharply delineated in satellite images. There are parts of the national Park where old growth forests are found.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>The Stratford Mountain Club operates the Manganui skifield on the eastern slope. Equipment access to the skifield is by flying fox across the Manganui Gorge.</p><br>
<p>The Taranaki Alpine Club maintains Tahurangi Lodge on the north slope of the mountain, just next to the television tower. The lodge is frequently used as the base for public climbs to the summit held in the summer months. The various climbing and tramping clubs organize these public events and provide informal guides.</p><br>
<p>For the average person, Taranaki would be considered a moderate mountain to climb. It takes a person with good fitness level a day to make the up-and-back climb. Weather on the mountain can change rapidly, which has caught inexperienced trampers and climbers unawares. As of 27 June 2017, 84 people have died on the mountain since records began in 1891, many having been caught by a sudden change in the weather. In terms of fatalities this mountain is the second most dangerous mountain in New Zealand after Aoraki / Mount Cook</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>There are three roads leading part-way up the mountain. The highest is to East Egmont plateau, with a viewing platform and parking facilities for the skifield. It lies at the transition between subalpine scrub and alpine herbfields.</p><br>
<p>There are park visitor centres at North Egmont and at Dawson Falls on the southeast side.</p><br>
<p>The eastern side from Stratford leads to the Stratford Mountain House, and the ski field.</p><br>
<p>There is no road access on the western side. However, a road winds for 10 km through native bush over the saddle between Pouakai and Kaitake. Near the top of this road is the renowned Pukeiti Trust rhododendron garden.</p><br>
<p>The Tasman Peninsula is a peninsula located in south-east Tasmania, Australia, approximately 75 km by the Arthur Highway, south-east of Hobart.</p><br>
<p>The Tasman Peninsula lies south and west of Forestier Peninsula, to which it connects via an isthmus called Eaglehawk Neck. This in turn is joined to the rest of Tasmania by an isthmus called East Bay Neck, near the town of Dunalley, approximately 60 km by road from Hobart. The peninsula is surrounded by water; to the north by Norfolk Bay, to the northwest by Frederick Henry Bay, to the west and south by Storm Bay, and to the east by the Tasman Sea.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Many smaller towns are also located on the Tasman Peninsula, the largest of which are Nubeena and Koonya. Smaller centres include Premaydena, Highcroft and Stormlea. The Conservation Park, located on the main highway at Taranna, is a popular local visitor attraction along with the World Heritage Port Arthur Historic Site and a number of beaches.</p><br>
<p>The local government area is the Tasman Council. The area of the peninsula and of the local government area is 660 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The area is named after Dutch explorer Abel Tasman. The aboriginal inhabitants of this area preceding European arrival were the Pydairrerme people. Their territory was what is now known as the Tasman and Forestier peninsulas. The Pydairrerme people were a part of the larger Paredarerme language group, whose territory covered a large area of the east coast of Tasmania.</p><br>
<p>The first European settlement of the peninsula was in the early 1830s. It was selected as a penal settlement because it was geographically isolated from the rest of the colony but more easily reachable by sea than the other place of secondary banishment, Macquarie Harbour on the west coast, which could then be closed down. It also had excellent supplies of timber for shipbuilding and general construction work, and a deep sheltered harbour where visiting British warships could be repaired. Its inaccessibility was enhanced by having Eaglehawk Neck lined with guards and guard dogs, to prevent the escape of any convicts. A small number did escape, including the bushranger Martin Cash.</p><br>
<p>The Saltwater River historic site (entry free), located near the north tip west of the peninsula, was originally the site of a convict-operated coal mine.</p><br>
<p>The penal settlement of Port Arthur is now a tourist attraction. As in most of the rest of the state, tourism is a major industry. Bushwalking is also popular in the often rugged terrain, particularly picturesque spots being Cape Raoul and Cape Pillar at the extreme south-west and south-east ends of the peninsula, separated by the entrance to Port Arthur.</p><br>
<h3>Local industry</h3><br>
<p>In the era between convict settlement and the rise of the modern tourist industry the area was mostly engaged in the timber industry and fishing. The terrain and soil types impeded large-scale agriculture although orcharding and general farming was and is conducted in suitable locations. The region remained highly isolated until the introduction of regular river steamer services between it and Hobart in the 1880s - these were further encouraged by the tourist industry to Port Arthur that began when overseas steamships began to call into Hobart, also during the 1880s. During the period 1900-1930s the main operator servicing the area was the Huon, Channel & Peninsula Steamship Company, owners of several vessels including the extant M.V. Cartela.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<h3>Plants</h3><br>
<p>The rare Cape Pillar sheoak is a shrub or small tree found only in the Tasman National Park where it is restricted to the Cape Pillar area of the Tasman Peninsula and to Tasman Island.</p><br>
<h3>Birds</h3><br>
<p>The peninsula forms part of the South-east Tasmania Important Bird Area, identified as such by BirdLife International because of its importance in the conservation of a range of woodland birds, especially the endangered swift parrot and forty-spotted pardalote.</p><br>
<h3>Tasmanian devil</h3><br>
<p>While the region is best known for its convict history it is now the key area in the battle to save the Tasmanian devil from extinction from a new type of contagious cancer called devil facial tumour disease (DFTD). The isolation from the Tasmanian mainland, where DFTD is running unchecked and has killed more than half of all devils, is ideal for maintaining a healthy wild Tasmanian devil population in a project that involves the local Tasmanian Devil Conservation Park at Taranna and government and university scientists.</p><br>
<h3>Coastline</h3><br>
<p>The rugged coastline has been the scene of a number of shipwrecks. Two large seagoing steamers have sunk after hitting the Hyppolyte Rock off its east coast - the Tasman in 1883 and the Nord in 1915. Munroe Bight to the north of Cape Pillar is named after the former American barque James Munroe wrecked there in 1850.</p><br>
<p>The Tasman Peninsula is well known for its rugged eastern coastline, and much of it is now the Tasman National Park. At Eaglehawk Neck are many strange rock formations, including The Devils Kitchen, Tasman&#39;s Arch, Blow Hole and the Tessellated Pavement. Further south are the highest sea cliffs in the Southern Hemisphere, rising 300 m above the Tasman Sea at Cape Pillar.</p><br>
<p>The peninsula has notable surf spots at Cape Raoul, Roaring Beach and Shipstern Bluff.</p><br>
<p>Arenal Volcano  is an active andesitic stratovolcano in north-western Costa Rica around 90 km northwest of San José, in the province of Alajuela, canton of San Carlos, and district of La Fortuna. The Arenal volcano measures at least 1,633 m high. It is conically shaped with a crater 140 m in diameter. Geologically, Arenal is considered a young volcano and it is estimated to be less than 7,500 years old. It is also known as "Pan de Azúcar", "Canaste", "Volcan Costa Rica", "Volcan Río Frío" or "Guatusos Peak".</p><br>
<p>The volcano was dormant for hundreds of years and exhibited a single crater at its summit, with minor fumaroles activity, covered by dense vegetation. In 1968 it erupted unexpectedly, destroying the small town of Tabacón. Due to the eruption three more craters were created on the western flanks but only one of them still exists today. Since 2010, Arenal has been dormant.</p><br>
<h2>Geographic setting and description</h2><br>
<p>Arenal is one of seven historically active Costa Rican volcanoes along with Poás, Irazú, Miravalles, Orosí, Rincón de la Vieja complex, and Turrialba. It was Costa Rica&#39;s most active volcano until 2010, and one of the ten most active volcanoes in the world. It has been studied by seismologists for many years.</p><br>
<p>The volcano is located at the center of Arenal Volcano National Park in the northern zone of the country, 15 km southwest of the La Fortuna district in San Carlos (canton), Costa Rica.</p><br>
<p>Arenal Volcano area is an important watershed for the Arenal Lake Reservoir. The reservoir&#39;s water is used for hydroelectric power. It is also connected to the national system.</p><br>
<p>Arenal has several eruptive vents. Chato is a dormant stratovolcanic cone. It is believed Chato first erupted 38,000 years ago during the Pleistocene period and last erupted about 3,500 years ago. Chatito 10.438&deg;N latitude, 84.687&deg;W longitude is a lava dome with an elevation of 1,100 m. Espina is another lava dome.</p><br>
<h2>Geologic history</h2><br>
<p>Arenal is the youngest and most active of all the volcanoes in Costa Rica. Scientists have been able to date its activity back to more than 7000 years ago. The area remained largely unexplored until 1937, when a documented expedition took place to reach the summit. It has been considered eruptive since 1968.</p><br>
<h3>July 29, 1968</h3><br>
<p>On Monday, July 29, 1968 at 7:30 AM, the Arenal Volcano suddenly and violently erupted. The eruptions continued unabated for several days, burying over 15 square kilometers under rocks, lava and ash. When it was finally over, the eruptions had killed 87 people and buried 3 small villages – Tabacón, Pueblo Nuevo and San Luís – and affected more than 232 square kilometers of land. Crops were spoiled, property was ruined, and large amounts of livestock were killed.</p><br>
<p>At the height of its ferocious activity, the volcano flung giant rocks – some weighing several tons – more than a kilometer away at a rate of 600 meters per second. These explosions would go on to form three new active craters.</p><br>
<p>As the three towns were destroyed on the western side of the volcano, a town by the name of El Borio on the east side was untouched and unharmed. It is a popular myth that after the volcano ceased to erupt, El Borio was renamed La Fortuna, which means "the fortunate", referring to its luckiness that the volcano erupted to the west and not the east. However, the town was renamed La Fortuna by its residents before the 1968 eruption. La Fortuna means "The Fortune", and refers to the flat, fertile lands in the area, which are unlike the rough, mountainous terrain which surrounds most of the Arenal volcano. If the town had been renamed "The Fortunate", it would have been called "El Afortunado."</p><br>
<h3>June 1975</h3><br>
<p>Between the 17th and the 21st of June 1975 several avalanches went down from one of the craters. The vegetation along Tabacon River was destroyed and a great amount of material was deposited on the riverbed. Four strong explosions also blew large amounts of ash into the sky. The ash was spread within a distance of 26 km.</p><br>
<h3>June 1984</h3><br>
<p>After a period of high effusive activity of intermittent lava flows, a new explosive phase began with 3 to 20 explosions per day of low to moderate magnitude. These explosions of steam, water, gases and ash reached altitudes of up to 5 kilometers where winds again carried the material across the Arenal reservoir (Lake Arenal) and over the town of Tilarán.</p><br>
<h3>August 1993</h3><br>
<p>A northwest wall of one of the craters collapsed and generated several pyroclastic flows. The collapsed crater wall was shaped as a V, about 60 meters deep and 100 meters wide. In this V-shaped crater the lava started to flow again.</p><br>
<h3>March 1994</h3><br>
<p>Flows started to fill the U-shaped crater and deposited materials around the crater.</p><br>
<h3>March 1996</h3><br>
<p>At this time the volcano started to produce regular lava flows, accompanied by intermittent explosions of gases. This was the regular activity of the volcano until May 5, 1998.</p><br>
<h3>May 5, 1998</h3><br>
<p>The Arenal Volcano experienced a series of large eruptions on Tuesday afternoon, May 5, 1998. The first ratchet eruption was recorded at 1:05 p.m. when part of the northwest wall of the crater fell apart. Large amounts of lava, rocks and ash flew out of the volcano during this explosion. Another eruption took place at 2:20 p.m. with material emerging from the same part of the volcano.</p><br>
<p>A specialist from the Costa Rica Volcanic and Seismic Observatory explained that the eruptions are nothing unusual for the volcano. Nevertheless, during this occasion the amount of lava within the crater was significantly greater than normal and therefore more material was poured out. This time a landslide (avalanche) took place, too, as a part of the crater wall fell apart on the northwest side. The phenomenon occurs sporadically, although this time the consequences were greater than usual.</p><br>
<p>As a normal precaution, authorities declared a red alert, closed the road between La Fortuna and Tilarán, which runs around the north side of the volcano, and evacuated approximately 450 people (mostly tourists) from the immediate area, including several hotels and tourism oriented businesses. There were no reports of injuries caused by the volcanic activity.</p><br>
<p>At 5:20 p.m. on Tuesday the volcano was still discharging material, but activity had decreased significantly.</p><br>
<h3>May 7, 1998</h3><br>
<p>The eruptions of May 7, 1998 damaged two square kilometers and destroyed a 400 by 100 meter area of green forest in the vicinity of Arenal Volcano. A fissure, 500 meters long and 10 meters deep, was opened up in the wall of the crater and all the material slid down the side of the volcano.</p><br>
<p>During this day 23 eruptions were reported, between 1:05 p.m. and 7:00 p.m., and thereafter the volcano returned to its normal state. Authorities reported no unusual behavior and the national park was reopened the same week. Local seismologists investigate the activity of the volcano and park rangers continue to vigorously enforce the safety perimeter.</p><br>
<p>Coit Tower, also known as the Lillian Coit Memorial Tower, is a 210 ft tower in the Telegraph Hill neighborhood of San Francisco, California. The tower, in the citys Pioneer Park, was built in 1933 using Lillie Hitchcock Coits bequest to beautify the city of San Francisco; at her death in 1929 Coit left one-third of her estate to the city for civic beautification. The tower was proposed in 1931 as an appropriate use of Coit&#39;s gift. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on January 29, 2008.</p><br>
<p>The art deco tower, built of unpainted reinforced concrete, was designed by architects Arthur Brown, Jr. and Henry Howard, with fresco murals by 27 different on-site artists and their numerous assistants, plus two additional paintings installed after creation off-site. Although an apocryphal story claims that the tower was designed to resemble a fire hose nozzle due to Coit&#39;s affinity with the San Francisco firefighters of the day, the resemblance is coincidental.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Coit Tower was paid for with money left by Lillie Hitchcock Coit, a wealthy socialite who loved to chase fires in the early days of the city&#39;s history. Before December 1866, there was no city fire department, and fires in the city, which broke out regularly in the wooden buildings, were extinguished by several volunteer fire companies. Lillie Coit was one of the more eccentric characters in the history of North Beach and Telegraph Hill, smoking cigars and wearing trousers long before it was socially acceptable for women to do so. She was an avid gambler and often dressed like a man in order to gamble in the males-only establishments that dotted North Beach.</p><br>
<p>Lillies fortune funded the monument four years following her death in 1929. She had a special relationship with the citys firefighters. At the age of fifteen she witnessed the Knickerbocker Engine Co. No. 5 in response to a fire call up on Telegraph Hill when they were shorthanded, and threw her school books to the ground and pitched in to help, calling out to other bystanders to help get the engine up the hill to the fire, to get the first water onto the blaze. After that Lillie became the Engine Co. mascot and could barely be constrained by her parents from jumping into action at the sound of every fire bell. After this she was frequently riding with the Knickerbocker Engine Co. 5, especially so in street parades and celebrations in which the Engine Co. participated. Through her youth and adulthood Lillie was recognized as an honorary firefighter.</p><br>
<p>Her will read that she wished for one third of her fortune, amounting to $118,000, "to be expended in an appropriate manner for the purpose of adding to the beauty of the city which I have always loved." Two memorials were built in her name. One was Coit Tower, and the other was a sculpture depicting three firemen, one of them carrying a woman in his arms.</p><br>
<p>The San Francisco County Board of Supervisors proposed that Coits bequest be used for a road at Lake Merced. This proposal brought disapproval from the estates executors, who expressed a desire that the county find "ways and means of expending this money on a memorial that in itself would be an entity and not a unit of public development." Art</p><br>
<p>Commission president Herbert Fleishhacker suggested a memorial on Telegraph Hill, which was approved by the estate executors. An additional $7,000 in city funds were appropriated, and a design competition was initiated. The winner was architect Arthur Brown, Jr, whose design was completed and dedicated on October 8, 1933.</p><br>
<p>Coit Tower was listed as a San Francisco Designated Landmark in 1984</p><br>
<p>Coit Tower was a prominent landscape feature in Alfred Hitchcocks 1958 film, Vertigo, which was set largely in San Francisco. Art director Henry Bumstead, who worked on "Vertigo", noted that Hitchcock himself was adamant that Coit Tower should be seen in the film from the apartment of the lead character (portrayed by Jimmy Stewart). When Bumstead asked why, Hitchcock said, "Its a phallic symbol."</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>Brown&#39;s competition design envisioned a restaurant in the tower, which was changed to an exhibition area in the final version. The design uses three nesting concrete cylinders, the outermost a tapering fluted 180 ft shaft that supports the viewing platform. An intermediate shaft contains a stairway, and an inner shaft houses the elevator. The observation deck is 32 ft below the top, with an arcade and skylights above it. A rotunda at the base houses display space and a gift shop.</p><br>
<h3>Mural project</h3><br>
<p>The Coit Tower murals were done under the auspices of the Public Works of Art Project, the first of the New Deal federal employment programs for artists. Ralph Stackpole and Bernard Zakheim successfully sought the commission in 1933, and supervised the muralists, who were mainly faculty and students of the California School of Fine Arts (CSFA), including Maxine Albro, Victor Arnautoff, Ray Bertrand, Rinaldo Cuneo, Mallette Harold Dean, Gordon Langdon, Clifford Wight, Edith Hamlin, George Albert Harris, Otis Oldfield, Suzanne Scheuer, Hebe Daum, Jane Berlandina, Frederick E. Olmsted Jr., Jose Moya del Pino and Frede Vidar.</p><br>
<p>The artists were committed in varying degrees to racial equality and to leftist and Marxist political ideas strongly expressed in the paintings. Bernard Zakheims mural "Library" depicts fellow artist John Langley Howard crumpling a newspaper in his left hand as he reaches for a shelved copy of Karl Marxs Das Kapital (here spelled as Das Capital) with his right. Workers of all races are shown as equals, often in the heroic poses of Socialist realism, while well-dressed racially white members of the capitalist classes enjoy the fruit of their labor. Victor Arnautoffs "City Life" includes The New Masses and The Daily Worker periodicals in the scenes news stand rack; John Langley Howards mural depicts an ethnically diverse Labor March as well as showing a destitute family panning for gold while a wealthy, heavily caricatured ensemble observes; and Stackpoles Industries of California was composed along the same lines as an early study of the destroyed Man at the Crossroads.</p><br>
<p>The youngest of the muralists, George Albert Harris, painted a mural called "Banking and Law". In the mural, the world of finance is represented by the Federal Reserve Bank and a stock market ticker (in which stocks are shown as declining) and law is illustrated by a law library. Some of the book titles that appear in the law library, such as Civil, Penal, and Moral Codes, are legitimate, while others list fellow muralists as authors, in a joking or derogatory manner.</p><br>
<p>After Diego Riveras Man at the Crossroads mural was destroyed by its Rockefeller Center patrons for the inclusion of an image of Lenin, the Coit Tower muralists protested, picketing the tower. Sympathy for Rivera led some artists to incorporate references to the Rivera incident; in Zakheims "Library" panel, Stackpole is painted reading a newspaper headline announcing the destruction of Rivera&#39;s mural.</p><br>
<p>John Langley Howard&#39;s Industry mural (which his architect brother Henry Howard helped design) depicts California industrial scenes, and angered conservatives for its frank depiction of out-of-work men.</p><br>
<p>Two of the murals are of San Francisco Bay scenes. Most murals are done in fresco; the exceptions are one mural done in egg tempera (upstairs, in the last decorated room) and the works done in the elevator foyer, which are oil on canvas. While most of the murals have been restored, a small segment (the spiral stairway exit to the observation platform) was not restored but durably painted over with epoxy surfacing.</p><br>
<p>Most of the murals are open for public viewing without charge during open hours, although there are ongoing negotiations by the Recreation and Parks Department of San Francisco to begin charging visitors a fee to enter the mural rotunda. The murals in the spiral stairway, normally closed to the public, are open for viewing through tours.</p><br>
<p>Since 2004 artist Ben Wood has collaborated with other artists on large scale video projections onto the exterior of Coit Tower, in 2004, 2006, 2008 & 2009.</p><br>
<h2>The view</h2><br>
<p>The tower, which stands atop Telegraph Hill in San Francisco&#39;s Pioneer Park, offers panoramic views of San Francisco including "crooked" Lombard Street, Nob Hill, Russian Hill, Twin Peaks, Aquatic Park, Pier 39, the Financial District, the Ferry Building, as well as San Francisco Bay itself including Angel Island, Alcatraz, Treasure Island, and the Golden Gate and Bay Bridges.</p><br>
<h2>Photographs</h2><br>
<h2>Murals</h2><br>
<p>File:Coit_Mural_Agriculture.jpgIndustry both in the city and out in the fields was an important theme in the murals. (From Maxine Albro&#39;s "Agriculture in California".)</p><br>
<p>File:Coit_Mural.jpgA scene of city life, including a robbery on the bottom right, and a car accident in the center. (From Victor Arnautoff&#39;s "City Life".)</p><br>
<p>File:Coit_Mural_News.jpgHeadlines in the newspapers discuss current events, including the creating of the murals. (From Bernard Zakheim&#39;s "Library".)</p><br>
<p>File:17 30 126 coit tower.jpgIndustries of California by Ralph Stackpole</p><br>
<p>Kowloon Bay is a bay and a town in Hong Kong.</p><br>
<p>The bay is located at the east of the Kowloon Peninsula and north of Hong Kong Island. It is the eastern portion of Victoria Harbour, between Hung Hom and Lei Yue Mun. The bay was divided into half when the runway of the former Kai Tak International Airport was constructed in the middle of the bay.</p><br>
<p>The reclamation of north-eastern Kowloon Bay near Ngau Tau Kok is also named Kowloon Bay. It was formerly known as Ngau Tau Kok Industrial Area. After the construction of MTR Kowloon Bay Station, the area is referred as Kowloon Bay. The area near the MTR station is residential while the area near the shore is industrial. The area is traditionally an extension of Ngau Tau Kok, and thus facilities such as Ngau Tau Kok Police Station are located there.</p><br>
<h2>Administration</h2><br>
<p>Administratively, the reclamation of Kowloon Bay and water east of the runway except the airport area is part of Kwun Tong District. The airport and the waters of the district, on the other hand, belong to Kowloon City District.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The bay has undergone massive reclamation over the past century. Even San Po Kong, which is now far from the coast, was reclaimed from the bay in the early days.</p><br>
<p>The western part of the bay is now protected from the sea by a breakwater, and forms the To Kwa Wan typhoon shelter. A small barrel rock, the Kowloon Rock, is in the typhoon shelter. Other barrel rocks, the Channel Rock and the Hoi Sham Island (also To Kwa Wan Island), are now connected to land at the former Kai Tak International Airport runway and at To Kwa Wan respectively, by land reclamation.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>The former Kai Tak International Airport was built on reclaimed land in Kowloon Bay and its one and only runway, which juts out into the bay, is surrounded by water on three sides.</p><br>
<p>Kowloon Bay Depot, the first MTR depot is located in the area.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<p>Amoy Gardens (where the SARS disease originated and spread)</p><br>
<p>Electrical and Mechanical Services Department Headquarters</p><br>
<p>Enterprise Square Five, a complex comprising MegaBox shopping mall and two office buildings</p><br>
<p>Kai Yip Estate, a public housing estate</p><br>
<p>Kowloonbay International Trade & Exhibition Centre (KITEC), an exhibition and convention centre which also hosts many concerts.</p><br>
<p>Richland Gardens, a Private Sector Participation Scheme estate</p><br>
<p>Skyline Tower 2, an office tower</p><br>
<p>Telford Garden, a private housing estate built on top of MTR&#39;s Kowloon Bay Station depot.</p><br>
<h2>Future</h2><br>
<p>In the 1990s, there were plans to convert the bay (reclaiming part or even the entire bay) and the former airport site into an in-city new town which would house 240 to 340 thousand residents and a sports stadium. The reduction in demand for land, environmental issues, and public outcry led to a revision of the project. The scheme would not comply with the Protection of the Harbour Ordinance. Hence, the Kai Tak Development plans do not include any land reclamation.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>The reclamation is serviced by MTR Kowloon Bay Station on the Kwun Tong Line which is beside Telford Plaza, along with many bus routes along Kwun Tong Road.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>Schools and institutions are scarce in this district. The most famous ones include the SPACE of the University of Hong Kong, Town Center of City University of Hong Kong and YCH Law Chan Chor Si College.</p><br>
<p>Government House , located on Government Hill in the Central District of Hong Kong Island, is the official residence of the Chief Executive of Hong Kong. The building was constructed in 1855 as a Colonial Renaissance style, but was significantly remodelled during Japanese occupation, resulting in the current hybrid Japanese-neoclassical form.</p><br>
<p>Government House was the official residence of the Governor from 1855 to 1997, when the city was under British rule. 25 governors of Hong Kong, out of total 28, used this building as their official residence.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Government House was designed by Charles St George Cleverly. Construction started in 1851, eight years after Hong Kong was declared a British colony, and took four years to complete. The first governor to live there was Sir John Bowring, the fourth governor of the territory. The last one was the last governor, Chris Patten.</p><br>
<p>During the Japanese occupation during World War II (1941–1945), it was occupied by the Japanese Military Governor. The form of the building changed to a hybrid Japanese/neoclassical image by Seichi Fujimura in 1944, primarily through the addition of a tower and roof elements.</p><br>
<p>Government House also housed the Legislative Council of Hong Kong from 1855 to the 1930s. The Council used the ballroom from 1891 onward.</p><br>
<p>After the handover of Hong Kong to the People&#39;s Republic of China in 1997, the House became a reception for ceremonies (such as the conferring of Honours and formal banquets). Tung Chee Hwa, the first Chief Executive, did not reside in Government House.</p><br>
<p>Donald Tsang, the second Chief Executive moved into Government House in January 2006, following extensive renovations. The Standard criticised that the renovation cost was estimated at HK$14.5 million, including a sum of HK$300,000 allocated to a new fish pond designed to accommodate Tsang&#39;s collection of koi.</p><br>
<h2>Major features</h2><br>
<p>The main entrance of the house faces south towards Victoria Peak. Down on the northern side is the Former Central Government Offices, where most government secretariat offices were situated until 2011.</p><br>
<p>Government House has a front lawn and a back garden. Eminent among the plants in the garden are the numerous azaleas that come to full bloom in spring. Inside, the ballroom, the drawing room, the dining room and the conference room are frequently used for receiving guests at official functions.</p><br>
<h3>Gate Lodges and Government House Guards</h3><br>
<p>At the front entrance on Upper Albert Road, there are two buildings with an iron gate known as the Gate Lodges. The lodges once housed the Government House Guards, who stood in front of the house and protected the Governor of Hong Kong. Various units of the British Army stationed in Hong Kong were used as guard units.</p><br>
<p>1st Battalion of the Queen&#39;s Royal Surrey Regiment 1962-63</p><br>
<p>C Company of the 1st Battalion of the Duke of Edinburgh’s Royal Regiment Berkshire and Wiltshire</p><br>
<p>Following the handover in 1997, officers of the Hong Kong Police have guarded the building.</p><br>
<h2>Open days</h2><br>
<p>The garden of Government House is opened twice a year to the public. At least one will be arranged in spring to enable members of the public to share the delight in viewing the full bloom of the azaleas. Visitors are usually allowed to pass by the drawing room, dining room and ballroom where key official functions are held.</p><br>
<p>The open days are generally arranged during weekends. Dates are announced through press releases one week in advance. No admission fee is charged.</p><br>
<h2>Booking</h2><br>
<p>The ballroom of Government House was made available in the 1990s on three Fridays each month for bookings by charitable, non-profit or public organisations to host events that benefit the community. The nature of the event under application must be well-matched with the identity of Government House as an important historical monument of Hong Kong and with its status as a dignified location for the Hong Kong Government to hold official functions. In early 2006, the Chief Executive moved into Government House and used it as official residence and office. Most of the staff in the Chief Executive&#39;s Office have also been relocated to Government House to support the Chief Executive. Since then, Government House is no longer available for booking due to security and operational reasons.</p><br>
<h2>Other official residences</h2><br>
<p>In 1900, Mountain Lodge, on Victoria Peak, was built as an alternate summer home for the Governor, a role it retained until 1934. The building survived until 1946, but today only the Gate Lodge and Victoria Peak Garden remain. One of three "GOVERNOR&#39;S RESIDENCE" marking stones of the former Mountain Lodge was erected in the small flower bed in front of the entrance of the Government House in 1980.</p><br>
<p>From 1934, Fanling Lodge, in the New Territories, was used as a summer residence for the Governor. It has retained this role, and is now the alternate residence of the Chief Executive of Hong Kong. The lodge is occupied mainly at weekends and on holidays.</p><br>
<h2>Feng shui</h2><br>
<p>According to The New York Times, alleged bad feng shui was the reason Tung Chee Hwa refused to live or work in Government House upon becoming Chief Executive. During his terms as Chief Executive, he was still heavily criticised by Hong Kongers, and his popularity fell well below 40% by the time of his resignation.</p><br>
<p>The Standard believed Tung&#39;s reason to stay away from the mansion was political: a subtle effort to reduce the age-old British legacy over Hong Kong. Other sources mention that "it was the warning about spying devices that scared him away".</p><br>
<p>__NOTOC__</p><br>
<p>The Japan Trench is an oceanic trench, a part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, in the floor of the northern Pacific Ocean off northeast Japan. It extends from the Kuril Islands to the Bonin Islands and is 10,554 m at its deepest. It is an extension of the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench to the north and the Izu-Ogasawara Trench to its south with a length of 800 km. This trench is created when the oceanic Pacific plate subducts beneath the continental Okhotsk Plate. The subduction process causes bending of the downgoing plate, creating a deep-sea trench. Continuing movement on the subduction zone associated with the Japan Trench is one of the main causes of tsunamis and earthquakes in northern Japan, including the megathrust Tōhoku earthquake and resulting tsunami that occurred on 11 March 2011.</p><br>
<h2>Exploration</h2><br>
<p>*On 11 August 1989, the Shinkai 6500 three-person submersible descended to 6,526 m while exploring the Japan Trench.</p><br>
<p>*In October 2008, a UK-Japan team discovered a shoal of Pseudoliparis amblystomopsis snailfish at a depth of approximately 7,700 m in the trench. These were, at the time, the deepest living fish ever filmed. The record was surpassed by an unidentified type of snailfish filmed at a depth of 8,145 m in December 2014 in the Mariana Trench, and extended in May 2017 when another unidentified type of snailfish was filmed at a depth of 8,178 m in the Mariana Trench.</p><br>
<p>Chatham Island is by far the largest island of the Chatham Islands group, in the south Pacific Ocean off the eastern coast of New Zealand. It is said to be "halfway between the equator and the pole, and right on the International Date Line", though the point  in fact lies ca. 173 miles WSW of the islands westernmost point. The island is called Rekohu  in Moriori, and Wharekauri&#39; in Maori.</p><br>
<p>The island was named after the survey ship HMS Chatham which was the first European ship to locate the island in 1791. It covers an area of 920 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>Chatham Island lies 650 km south-east of Cape Turnagain, the nearest point of mainland New Zealand to the island.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The geography of the roughly T-shaped island is dominated by three features: two bays and a lagoon. More than half of the west coast of Chatham is taken up by the deep indentation of Petre Bay. The islands main settlement of Waitangi is located in a small indentation in Petre Bays southern coast. Other significant settlements are Kaingaroa on the northeast promontory, and Owenga on the south side of Hanson Bay.</p><br>
<p>On the east coast is the even larger Hanson Bay, which stretches for the entire length of the island (35 km).</p><br>
<p>Much of the area between the bays is taken up by the large Te Whanga Lagoon, which drains to the sea to the east, into the southern half of Hanson Bay. This lagoon covers about 160 km&sup2, and drains several small rivers that rise in the hills at the south end of the island. The next largest lakes are Rangitai and Huro, respectively northeast and southwest of Te Whanga. The central and north part of Chatham Island are mostly flat, with altitudes raging from a few metres on the northeast and centre to 50 m on the northwest, but with a few scattered hillocks. The south part is higher, generally sloping down towards north and west; about half of it is over 150 m above sea level. The south coast of the island is mostly cliffs 100 m high or more. The highest point of the island (299 m) lies close to its southernmost point.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Chatham Island hosts the only known breeding populations of the endemic and critically endangered Magenta petrel, as well as the endangered Black Robin.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Chatham Island (or "Isle") is featured in the first and in the final chapter of Cloud Atlas, the 2004 novel by David Mitchell. The novel was adapted for screen.</p><br>
<p>The Picos de Europa  are a range of mountains 20 km inland from the northern coast of Spain, in the Autonomous Communities of Asturias, Cantabria and Castile and León; they are part of the Cantabrian Mountains. A widely accepted origin for the name is that they were the first sight of Europe for ships arriving from the Americas.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The range consists of three major massifs: Central (also known as Urrieles), Eastern (Ándara) and Western (also known as the Picos de Cornión). The Central and Western massifs are separated by the 1.5 km deep Cares Gorge (Garganta del Cares), with the village of Caín at its head. The waters in the Cares mostly arise from cave resurgences. Some of the water in the Cares river is diverted through a hydroelectric scheme, with a canal running in the northern wall of the gorge to Camarmeña. An access path next to the canal provides a spectacular walk.</p><br>
<p>Almost all of the rock in the Picos is limestone, and glacial action has contributed to create an impressive area of alpine karst. The highest peak is Torre de Cerredo, with an altitude of 2,650 metres at 43&deg;11&prime;51&Prime;N latitude, 4&deg;51&prime;06&Prime;W longitude. Many other peaks reach altitudes of over 2,600 m. The area is popular with mountaineers, climbers and mountain walkers. There is a good network of well-established mountain refuges. The best-known climbing site is the Naranjo de Bulnes or Picu Urriellu, in the Urrieles massif which can be considered the most famous climb in Spain.</p><br>
<h2>Nature</h2><br>
<p>Cantabrian brown bears (Ursus arctos pyrenaicus) and wolves (Canis lupus signatus) live in the more remote regions. Rebeccos (Cantabrian chamois - Rupicapra pyrenaica parva) are fairly frequently seen (according to a 2006 Ministry of the Environment report, there were around 8,000 sightings that year); choughs and buzzards are common, various eagles and vultures are frequently seen, and there is a diverse butterfly population in the park.</p><br>
<p>Most of the region is now protected as a single Picos de Europa National Park in Cantabria, Asturias and León provinces of Spain; the Asturian part was Spain&#39;s first National Park. Access is via minor roads to each of the three massifs from the north and from the south to the aerial tramway at Fuente Dé and to Caín at the head of the Cares Canyon.</p><br>
<h2>Caves</h2><br>
<p>The Picos de Europa contain many of world&#39;s deepest caves, including Torca del Cerro (&minus;1589 m), Sima de la Cornisa (&minus;1507 m), Torca los Rebecos (&minus;1255 m) and Pozo del Madejuno (&minus;1252 m). Discovery of new caves and their exploration still continues.</p><br>
<h2>Gastronomy</h2><br>
<p>The Picos support a dwindling group of shepherds who move up from the valleys in the summer with their sheep, goats, cows, and an occasional pig. The area is famed for its piquant blue cheeses, such as Cabrales cheese and Picón Tresviso Bejes.</p><br>
<p>Biebrza  is a river in north-eastern Poland, a tributary of the Narew river , with a length of 155 kilometres  and the basin area of 7,057 km. .</p><br>
<p>Larger towns in the area:</p><br>
<p>* Lipsk</p><br>
<p>* Sztabin</p><br>
<p>* Goniądz</p><br>
<p>* Osowiec-Twierdza</p><br>
<p>* Radzilow</p><br>
<p>* Wizna</p><br>
<p>The region is usually divided into lower, central and upper basin areas, each with its own different characteristics.</p><br>
<h2>Tributaries</h2><br>
<p>* Right tributaries: Netta, Lega, Ełk, Wissa</p><br>
<p>* Left tributaries: Sidra, Brzozówka</p><br>
<h2>Natural environment</h2><br>
<p>Today the river is best known for the vivid wildlife in the peatbogs and marshes in its flooding areas.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Historically, the borderland regions of Masovia and Lithuania, the area retains much of its cultural diversity today.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural and linguistic environment</h2><br>
<p>The basin of Biebrza river is inhabited not only by hundreds of rare and endangered sorts of birds, but also by people representing diverse cultures, languages and religions. While most of the population of the region speaks standard Polish, some people in the upper river basin (municipalities of Lipsk, Dąbrowa Białostocka and partly Sztabin) speak a local dialect of Belarusian (called by them prosty jazyk - "the simple language"). The people there belong to the Orthodox or Roman Catholic church. On the north bank of the upper Biebrza there are also a few villages where so called "old-believers" live, who speak an archaic dialect of Russian. Some of these communities preserved much of their traditional culture in spite of a long lasting communist government policies aimed at assimilation of non-Polish cultural and linguistic minorities.</p><br>
<p>The Bzura is a river in central Poland, a tributary of the Vistula river , with a length of 166 kilometres  and a basin area of 7,788 km. It was noteworthy during the Second World War as Polish forces made a major stand against the Wehrmacht in an attempt to halt the German advance on Warsaw .</p><br>
<h2>Towns and townships</h2><br>
<p>Zgierz</p><br>
<p>Aleksandrów Łódzki</p><br>
<p>Ozorków</p><br>
<p>Łęczyca</p><br>
<p>Łowicz</p><br>
<p>Sochaczew</p><br>
<p>Brochów</p><br>
<p>Wyszogród</p><br>
<h2>Right tributaries</h2><br>
<p>Linda</p><br>
<p>Moszczenica</p><br>
<p>Mroga</p><br>
<p>Struga</p><br>
<p>Bobrówka</p><br>
<p>Skierniewka</p><br>
<p>Rawka</p><br>
<p>Pisia</p><br>
<p>Sucha</p><br>
<p>Utrata</p><br>
<p>Łasica</p><br>
<h2>Left tributaries</h2><br>
<p>Witonia</p><br>
<p>Ochnia</p><br>
<p>Słudwia</p><br>
<p>Bóbr  is a river which runs through the north of the Czech Republic and the southwest of Poland, a left tributary of the Oder.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>The Bóbr has a length of 272 km (2 in Czech Republic, 270 in Poland, 10th longest Polish river) and a basin area of 5,876 km&sup2; (46 in Czech Republic and 5,830 in Poland). It originates on a slope of the Rýchory mountains in the southeast of the Krkonoše range. The source is located near the small Bobr village of the Žacléř municipality in the Czech Hradec Králové Region. Parallel to the Lusatian Neisse tributary of the Oder in the west, it flows northwards from the Bohemian region into adjacent Silesia.</p><br>
<p>Shortly after the river crosses the border to Polish Niedamirów and runs northwestwards through the Jelenia Góra valley of the Western Sudetes to the dam of Pilchowice and downhill into the plains of Lower Silesia, passing the towns of Jelenia Góra, Bolesławiec, Szprotawa, and Żagań, where the parallel Kwisa river joins it. The river finally flows into the Oder near the town of Krosno. Non-navigable for its entire length, it is a popular destination for canoeing.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Since the Middle Ages the lower Bóbr river north of Żagań and the Kwisa confluence marked the border between the historic regions of Silesia in the east and Lower Lusatia to the west. After in 937 King Otto I of Germany had established the Saxon Eastern March on the lands settled by Polabian Slavs, Margrave Gero until 963 subdued the Lusatian lands up to the border with Poland (Civitas Schinesghe). Upon Gero&#39;s death in 965, the river was the designated eastern border of the newly created March of Lusatia in the Holy Roman Empire.</p><br>
<p>The Polish territorial sovereignty was acknowledged to Duke Bolesław I Chrobry by Emperor Otto III at the Congress of Gniezno in 1000. Nevertheless, Bolesław laid claims to the lands west of the Bóbr, which he temporarily acquired by the 1018 Treaty of Bautzen. After Emperor Conrad II had reconquered the territory until 1031, the status quo was restored.</p><br>
<p>The river became an internal border, when the Luxembourg king John of Bohemia step-by-step vassalized the Piast dukes of Silesia and incorporated their lands with the consent of King Casimir III of Poland by the 1335 Treaty of Trentschin, whereafter both Lusatia in the west and Silesia in the east became Lands of the Bohemian Crown.</p><br>
<p>During the Potsdam Conference in 1945, the Western Allies briefly advocated a Polish-German border along the Oder, Bóbr and Kwisa rivers, but were rejected by Joseph Stalin, who had already committed himself to the Oder-Neisse line.</p><br>
<h2>Towns</h2><br>
<p>Lubawka</p><br>
<p>Kamienna Góra</p><br>
<p>Jelenia Góra</p><br>
<p>Wleń</p><br>
<p>Lwówek Śląski</p><br>
<p>Bolesławiec</p><br>
<p>Szprotawa</p><br>
<p>Małomice</p><br>
<p>Żagań</p><br>
<p>Nowogród Bobrzański</p><br>
<p>Krosno Odrzańskie</p><br>
<h2>Bóbr dam</h2><br>
<p>The Pilchowice Dam (Jezioro Pilchowickie, German: Talsperre Mauer) was built from 1904 to 1912 in the northern Krkonoše range near Jelenia Góra. Then the largest in Europe, surpassing even the Urft Dam built in 1905, it created a reservoir of about 4 km length.</p><br>
<p>The masonry structure was erected on a Gneiss basis according to the Intze Principle. Equipped with Francis turbines manufactured by Voith and Siemens-Schuckert and AEG generators, the hydroelectric plant supplies about 20,000,000 kWh a year, with a power rating of 7,585 kW.</p><br>
<p>Noteć  is a river in central Poland with a length of 388 km  and a basin area of 17,300 km&sup2;. It is the largest tributary of the Warta river and lies completely within Poland.</p><br>
<h2>Course</h2><br>
<p>It rises in the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship and flows through Lake Gopło and the town of Inowrocław. It reaches the voivodeship of Greater Poland in the historic Pałuki region south of Piła. Further down in Lubusz Voivodeship, it empties into the Warta at Santok near Gorzów Wielkopolski. The river is usually subdivided into an upper part (Noteć Górna), running from its source to Nakło, and a lower part (Noteć Dolna) from Nakło to its mouth into the Warta River. At Nakło, the Bydgoszcz Canal, built in 1773/74, connects the Noteć River with the Brda river, a tributary of the Vistula, at Bydgoszcz.</p><br>
<p>The lower sections down from the mouth of the Drawa (near Krzyż Wielkopolski) are located within the broad Toruń-Eberswalde Urstromtal. These large wetlands, with only two historic river crossings at Santok and Drezdenko, are sparsely populated.</p><br>
<p>Most portions of the Noteć are navigable. Several locks and dams connect the Vistula and the Warta/Oder waterways.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In medieval times, the impenetrable marshes of the lower Noteć River formed the border between the Kingdom of Poland and the lands of the Pomeranian tribes on the Baltic coast. Disputed for centuries, the fortresses of Santok and Drezdenko finally were acquired by Margrave Conrad of Brandenburg on the occasion of his wedding with Constance of Poznań, daughter of the Piast duke Przemysł I of Greater Poland, in 1260.</p><br>
<p>After several unsuccessful attempts by the Polish Piasts to regain control, the area along the lower Noteć was finally incorporated into the Brandeburg Neumark region. For centuries, the border with the Greater Polish Poznań Voivodeship ran between Drezdenko (Driesen) and Krzyż upstream in the east. Under the rule of Elector Joachim III Frederick of Brandenburg from about 1603, the fortress was rebuilt and further settlements were erected within the wetlands. First plans for a large-scale drainage and land amelioration were developed under King Frederick William I of Prussia in 1738/39, though not carried out until after the Seven Years&#39; War in 1763.</p><br>
<p>After the First Partition of Poland in 1772 the adjacent Greater Polish lands up the river were annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia as the Netze District. The territory, created by the Prussian administration, was again ceded to newly established Duchy of Warsaw in 1807, but fell back to Prussia by resolution of the Vienna Congress in 1815.</p><br>
<h2>Towns</h2><br>
<p>Inowrocław</p><br>
<p>Izbica Kujawska</p><br>
<p>Kruszwica</p><br>
<p>Pakość</p><br>
<p>Barcin</p><br>
<p>Labiszyn</p><br>
<p>Nakło nad Notecią</p><br>
<p>Ujście</p><br>
<p>Czarnków</p><br>
<p>Wieleń</p><br>
<p>Krzyż Wielkopolski</p><br>
<p>Drezdenko</p><br>
<p>Village Santok near Gorzów Wielkopolski</p><br>
<p>Olympos  was an ancient city in Lycia. It was situated in a river valley near the coast. Its ruins are located south of the modern town Çıralı in the Kumluca district of Antalya Province, Turkey. Together with the sites of the ancient cities Phaselis and Idyros it is part of the Olympos Beydaglari National Park. The perpetual gas fires at Yanartaş are found a few kilometers to the northwest of the site.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The exact date of the city&#39;s foundation is unknown. A wall and an inscription on a sarcophagus have been dated to the end of the 4th century BC, so Olympus must have been founded at the latest in the Hellenistic period. The city presumably taking its name from nearby Mount Olympos (Tahtalı Dağı, Timber Mountain), one of over twenty mountains with the name Olympos in the Classical world.</p><br>
<p>The city was a member of the Lycian League, but it is uncertain when it joined the League. It started minting Lycian League coins from the end of the second century BC, possibly the 130s. At this time Olympos was one of the six largest cities of the League, which possessed three votes each.</p><br>
<p>Around 100 BC Olympos started issuing its own coins separate from the League. At this point the Cilician pirates had taken control of the city, either through conquest or profitable collaboration with the inhabitants. As a consequence the city abandoned the League or was evicted from it. The pirate chief Zenicetes made it his stronghold from where he controlled the rest of his possessions, which included Corycus, Phaselis and many other places in Pamphylia. His rule ended in 78 BC, when the Roman commander Publius Servilius Isauricus, accompanied by the young Julius Caesar, captured Olympos and his other territories after a victory at sea. At his defeat Zenicetes set fire to his own house and perished. At the time of the Roman conquest Olympus was described by Cicero as a rich and highly decorated city. Olympos then became part of the Roman Republic. The emperor Hadrian visited the city after which it took the name of Hadrianopolis for a period, in his honour.</p><br>
<p>Olympos is missing from the Stadiasmus Patarensis and the Stadiasmus Maris Magni. However, both include the already mentioned Corycus, which is described in ancient sources as a port of some significance. There is no evidence that Olympus was a maritime city prior to the 2nd century AD. On this basis Mustafa Adak has argued that Olympos was initially founded on Mount Olympus, which he identifies as Musa Dağı instead of Tahtalı Dağı. In his theory, the Romans destroyed Olympos, after which the population moved to Corycus, and the name of Corycus was changed to Olympos when Hadrian visited the city in 131 AD.</p><br>
<p>In the Middle Ages, Venetians, Genoese and Rhodians built two fortresses along the coast, but by the 15th century Olympos had been abandoned. Today the site attracts tourists, not only for the artifacts that can still be found (though fragmentary and widely scattered), but also for its scenic landscapes supporting wild grapevines, flowering oleander, bay trees, figs and pines.</p><br>
<h2>Bishopric</h2><br>
<p>Olympus became a Christian bishopric, a suffragan of the metropolitan see of Myra, the capital of the Roman province of Lycia. Its earliest recorded bishop was Saint Methodius of Olympus, whose service at the head of church in Olympus extended from the late 3rd century to his martyrdom in about 311. Aristocritus was at the Council of Ephesus in 431 and the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Anatolius was a signatory of the joint letter that the bishops of Lycia sent in 458 to Byzantine Emperor Leo I the Thracian regarding the murder of Proterius of Alexandria. Ioannes took part in the synod convoked in 536 by Patriarch Menas of Constantinople.</p><br>
<p>No longer a residential bishopric, Olympus is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.</p><br>
<h2>Layout</h2><br>
<h2>Modern Times</h2><br>
<p>Olympos is now a popular tourist area. The ruins of the ancient city end in a valley that holds numerous pensions and guest houses. The valley is bound on the water side by Mount Omurga.</p><br>
<p>The John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge, originally known as the Cincinnati-Covington Bridge spans the Ohio River between Cincinnati, Ohio and Covington, Kentucky. When opened on December 1, 1866, it was the longest suspension bridge in the world at 1,057 ft main span. Pedestrians use the bridge to get between the sports venues in Cincinnati  and the hotels, bars, restaurants, and parking lots in Northern Kentucky. The bar and restaurant district at the foot of the bridge on the Kentucky side is known as Roebling Point.</p><br>
<p>Ramps were constructed leading directly from the bridge to the Dixie Terminal building used for streetcars. These provided Covington–Cincinnati streetcars "with a grade-separated route to the center of downtown, and the terminal building was originally intended to connect, via underground pedestrian passages, with the never-built Fountain Square Station of the infamous Cincinnati Subway." When streetcar service ceased in the 1950s, the terminal was converted to a diesel bus terminal. The ramps were removed in 1998 when it ceased being used as a bus terminal.</p><br>
<h2>Planning and charter</h2><br>
<p>In the mid-19th century, need of a passage over the Ohio River became apparent. Commerce between Ohio and Kentucky had increased to the point that the highly congested steamboat traffic was constricting the economy. A solution that would not constrict traffic on the river even further was a wire cable suspension bridge of the type developed by French engineers. Several American engineers had begun designing and building suspension bridges. One of these men was John A. Roebling of Saxonburg, Pennsylvania. The Ohio River, however, was much wider than any river that had been bridged in France.</p><br>
<p>The Covington and Cincinnati Bridge Company was incorporated in February 1846, and the company asked Roebling to plan a bridge. The brief outline of his ideas called for a 1,200 ft span with 100 ft of clearance at high water to allow steamboats to pass unobstructed, but it included a monumental tower in the middle of the river. Steamboat and ferry interest groups lobbied against this plan. They feared an obstructed waterway, loss of a ferry market, and depreciation of property. The Ohio legislature refused the charter of the bridge. In September, Roebling published a 36-page report containing a technical discussion and an analysis of said problems. He attacked steamboat operators for using oversized chimneys, speculated on future commercial interests, and surmised on the importance of spanning western rivers. Roebling also specified that the company should make the decision as to the placement of the bridge along the river. Still, no charter was granted.</p><br>
<p>After observing the construction of a suspension bridge upriver, in Wheeling, Virginia (later West Virginia), the legislature relented and passed the charter, mandating excessive dimensions such as a 1,400 ft main span and requesting that the legislature determine the bridge location. This latter provision would later be regretted by everyone involved. The roads of Cincinnati and Covington were laid collinear with each other, in the hope that a bridge would be built sometime in the future. When the Ohio legislature decided to choose its own location for the bridge, it failed to pick such an obvious spot, hoping to defend Cincinnati&#39;s preeminence over Newport and Covington, the rival Kentucky cities. The bridge was actually located almost entirely in Kentucky because the state boundary follows the north bank of the river. It deprived Cincinnati forever of one of "the finest and most magnificent avenues on this continent."</p><br>
<p>In 1854, a small suspension bridge over the Licking River at Newport, Kentucky, collapsed. This event deterred investors, and the bridge company could not raise enough money to start construction. Amos Shinkle was elected to the board of trustees in 1856. He brought with him a much needed boost of energy. Shinkle immediately managed to find new private investors and to procure more support from both the Ohio and Kentucky governments. During this time the bridge charter was revised, and the span of the bridge was reduced to a minimum of 1,000 ft. By now, Roebling had established a reputation. President Ramson of the bridge company traveled to see Roebling, who was in Iowa, and he secured a contract to build the bridge. In September, Roebling arrived in Cincinnati, and much to his disgust, nothing was prepared.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>Excavation for the foundation of the Covington tower commenced in September 1856 and went smoothly. A foundation was set consisting of 13 layers of oak beams, each layer set perpendicular to the one beneath it, bolted with iron hardware, and finally all cemented into place. On the Cincinnati side, work was delayed from the start. The construction crews could not pump water out of the excavating pit fast enough. After months of little progress, Roebling decided against buying costly machinery or bigger engines for his pumps and, quite last minute, designed his own square positive displacement pumps from three-inch (76 mm) pine planks. He built them locally in about forty-eight hours and ran them off of one of Amos Shinkles&#39; tugboats, the Champion No.1. The homemade pumps displaced forty gallons of mud and clay in each cycle.</p><br>
<p>When the crews reached the compacted gravel bed of the Ohio River, Roebling decided this would be sufficient for the foundation of the Cincinnati tower. Oak timbers were laid, mirroring the foundation of the Covington tower, and within three months, masonry on both towers reached above the waterline (which, at this time, was at a record low for the fall). Work halted for the freezing temperatures and increased water level, a practice which continued seasonally until completion of the bridge. At this time, a revised contract was drawn up, stating work was to be completed by December 1858, barring "unavoidable calamities".</p><br>
<p>After a hard winter of 1856–57, and a wet spring, construction resumed in July 1857. Sandstone was used for the first twenty five vertical feet of each tower base. Limestone encased this sandstone to protect against scour and collision from watercraft. The remaining height of each tower was to be constructed of sandstone, rough cut and with a large draft. Roebling said this gave the towers "a massive look, quite suitable to their function."</p><br>
<p>Working from July to August 1857, the company was without liquid funds, a problem compounded by the Panic of 1857. Work halted because of the inability to pay for the project. In July 1858, operations resumed again, albeit with a smaller workforce. Only one tower was worked on at a time. President Ramson of the company died, and no work was be done during the years 1859–60.</p><br>
<p>In November 1860, Abraham Lincoln was elected president of the United States, and the Civil War began in January 1861. Upon a threatened siege of Cincinnati from Confederate forces, a pontoon bridge was built to span the Ohio River, allowing Union troops to cross and construct defenses. Soon after, once it had become obvious that a permanent structure was vital, money from investors came pouring in. Bonds were sold, and in January 1863 materials began arriving. In the interest of building more quickly, the requirement for the height of the main span was lowered to 100 ft. Preparations to resume construction were made. Machinery was ordered, and new derricks were built, but a renewed threat of invasion again temporarily halted progress. Finally, in the spring of 1863, work commenced and continued until the end of the year.</p><br>
<p>In the spring of 1864, work resumed again. Although Roebling operated his own wire mill at Trenton, New Jersey, the bridge company purchased one million pounds of wire from Richard Johnson at Manchester, England, for the cables that would span the width of the river. Roebling had used Johnsons wire for one of his other bridges. He preferred it over wire made in the United States because it was of better quality and greater tensile strength. Anchorages on both shores were constructed of limestone base and a freestone finish. Eleven-ton iron anchors were embedded in each block, securing cables with wrought iron chain links of Roeblings patent. The Civil War depleted the work force on the project, hindering speed and efficiency until its end.</p><br>
<p>Work on the bridge proceeded steadily after the end of the war. In September 1865 the first two wire ropes were laid. They were unwound from a spool on a barge, allowed to sink to the bottom of the river, then raised in unison from the riverbed. Wooden crossbeams were laid at regular intervals from the wire ropes, and a simple footbridge was constructed for the benefit of the workers. With the Ohio River "spanned," there was a final push to complete the project even through floods and freezing temperatures. The cabling of the bridge went at a feverish pace, with about eighty wires placed per day. Hundreds watched the spider-like process from both shores. And on June 23, 1866, the last wire was taken across, for a total of 10,360 wires. These were subsequently compressed together and wrapped with an outer covering of wire into two cables of 5,180 wires each. Suspenders were hung from the cables by the end of August, and 600,000 ft of oak lumber was laid as the floor across 300 wrought iron suspended beams. Two tracks for streetcars were laid. Diagonal stays were added to increase load capacity, strengthen the floor, and check vibration. Wrought iron trusses were added, running the length of the bridge.</p><br>
<p>On December 1, 1866, pedestrians walked upon the bridge, known locally only as "The Suspension Bridge," for the first time. Over 166,000 people walked across in the first two days. Final touches were put on the bridge over the next few months, and construction officially ended in July 1867. Two men died during construction. When the Roebling Bridge was formally opened on January 1, 1867, the driver of a horse and buggy was charged a toll of 15 cents to cross; the toll for three horses and a carriage was 25 cents. Pedestrians were charged one cent.</p><br>
<h2>Alterations and designations</h2><br>
<p>The original deck of the bridge was built at the lowest possible cost because of Civil War inflation, but the stone towers had been designed to carry a much heavier load than was originally demanded. In 1896, the bridge received a second set of main cables, a wider steel deck, and a longer northern approach. The reconstruction significantly altered the appearance of the bridge, but the new 30-ton weight limit extended its usefulness through the 20th century and beyond. In 1976, in honor of America&#39;s bicentennial, the bridge was painted blue (rather than brown).</p><br>
<p>The Covington-Cincinnati Bridge Company—a private company—operated the bridge until the Commonwealth of Kentucky purchased it in 1953 for $4.2 million. The state collected tolls until 1963 when the Brent Spence Bridge was opened on Interstate 75, downstream, approximately 0.6 mi to the west of The Roebling Suspension Bridge.</p><br>
<p>The bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 and designated a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1983. It remains the busiest of Cincinnati&#39;s four non-freeway automobile or pedestrian bridges. Initially called the "Covington-Cincinnati Suspension Bridge" or "Ohio River Bridge", it was renamed in honor of its designer and builder on June 27, 1983.</p><br>
<p>The Commonwealth of Kentucky closed the bridge on November 13, 2006, to make extensive repairs to the structure. It reopened in late March. However, it closed again for much of 2008 for repainting. On September 11, 2007, the Commonwealth of Kentucky reduced the weight limit to 11 tons to prevent future structural damage following an analysis by the University of Kentucky. The lower weight limit prevents buses from crossing the bridge.</p><br>
<p>The Commonwealth of Kentucky once again closed the bridge on April 7, 2010, for a complete repainting; the bridge reopened in November 2010. The closing of the bridge only affected vehicular traffic, while one pedestrian lane remained open.</p><br>
<p>On January 10, 2013, a large piece of sandstone fell from the north tower causing the bridge to be closed for approximately 4 hours during rush hour. This time was used to remove debris and inspect the tower for further damage.</p><br>
<p>Newberry Volcano  is a large potentially active shield volcano located 40 mi east of the Cascade Range and about 20 mi southeast of Bend, Oregon, within the Newberry National Volcanic Monument.</p><br>
<p>It is not a typical shield volcano because, in addition to erupting basaltic lavas, it also has erupted andesitic and even rhyolitic lava.</p><br>
<p>The volcano is 25 mi in diameter and has a total volume of 120 cumi. It possesses a large oval-shaped caldera 4 x in diameter, called the Newberry Caldera. Within the caldera there are two lakes (Paulina Lake and East Lake), many pyroclastic cones, lava flows, and obsidian domes.</p><br>
<p>A deep gash in the northern flank, dubbed "The Fissure", is the end of a 29 mi long series of fractures called the Northwest Rift Zone. Approximately 6,100 years ago, basaltic lava flows erupted from the fissure and covered part of Newberry&#39;s northwest flank.</p><br>
<p>Newberry Volcano was named for John Strong Newberry, who explored central Oregon for the Pacific Railroad Surveys in 1855.</p><br>
<p>During the Apollo program, parts of the volcano that resemble the Moon&#39;s surface were used to train the astronauts.</p><br>
<p>The Horse Lava Tube System, the Arnold Lava Tube System, and Lava Butte are all on the flanks of the volcano.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Newberry Volcano lies at the northwest end of both the Brothers Fault Zone and the High Lava Plains (area of blue lines on diagram at right); volcanic features in central Oregon that have been developing since about 16 Ma. Volcanism in the High Lava Plains is bimodal, having both basaltic (mafic) and rhyolitic (silicic) types of lava. Some of the rhyolites show a progression in ages from about 10 Ma in the east to the geologically recent Newberry Caldera in the west. This track, and its implication of a moving source, roughly mirrors the similar track of the Yellowstone Hotspot from the McDermitt Caldera on the Oregon—Nevada border, on which basis the Newberry volcanism has been attributed to a so-called hotspot (a plume of hot material arising from the earth&#39;s mantle). But whereas the Yellowstone Hotspot reflects the motion of the North American plate across a hotspot, the Newberry track does not. Although the cause of the intense regional volcanism around 16 Ma is hotly debated, the age progression across the High Lava Plains is now attributed to a reservoir of hot material that expanded over time, and the linearity of the trend attributed to exploitation of a deep, pre-existing weakness in the crust associated with the Brothers Fault Zone.</p><br>
<p>A great deal of volcanic activity has occurred at Newberry Volcano, which itself has one of the largest collections of cinder cones, volcanic domes, lava flows, and fissures in the world. Most of the cinder cones are 200 to 400 ft high and have shallow saucer-shaped summit craters. They are typically surrounded by basalt or andesite that erupted from their bases forming large lava beds. The northern flank holds three distinct lava tube systems that formed in pāhoehoe: the Horse Lava Tube System, Arnold Lava Tube System, and the Lava Top Butte basalt. On the northwest flank of the volcano and located next to Highway 97 south of Bend, Lava Butte is a good example of this kind of cinder cone and an aā lava bed. There are also about 20 rhyolite domes or fissures on the eastern, southern, and western flanks. Larger examples include 580,000-year-old McKay Butte on the west flank, 80,000-year-old China Hat and 850,000-year-old East Butte on the far eastern base.</p><br>
<p>During the late Pleistocene and Holocene periods, there have been six eruptive episodes: four of them rhyolitic, on the eastern half of the caldera; and two basaltic, on the flanks.</p><br>
<p>South Obsidian Eruptive Episode: An estimated 12,000 years ago, an obsidian dome and related obsidian flow erupted in the southeast part of the caldera.</p><br>
<p>East Rim Eruptive Episode: About 11,200 years ago (10,000 C years B.P.), mafic cinders, scoria, spatter, and lava flows erupted from a fissure on the east rim of the caldera.</p><br>
<p>Interlake Eruptive Episode: A series of rhyolitic eruptions began in the caldera approximately 7,300 years ago (6,200 C years B.P.). They produced a widespread phreatomagmatic pumiceous tephra deposit, obsidian flows, large and small pumice cones, and a pumice ring. This eruptive episode probably lasted for about 200 years.</p><br>
<p>Northwest Rift Eruptive Episode: About 7,000 years ago (6,100 C years B.P.), basaltic andesite lava and cinder cones erupted from extensive fissure vents on the northwest and south flanks of Newberry. Spatter and cinders also erupted from a fissure on the north caldera wall. The lava flows range up to 5.6 mi long and are more voluminous at lower elevations. This eruptive episode probably lasted for less than 50 years.</p><br>
<p>East Lake Eruptive Episode: About 3,500 years ago, obsidian flows and associated pumice deposits in the caldera erupted from caldera ring fractures.</p><br>
<p>Big Obsidian Eruptive Episode: About 480 A.D. (1,470 C years B.P.), a three-part sequence of rhyolitic eruptions began which included an air-fall tephra, ash-flow tephra, and an obsidian flow from a common vent at the base of the south caldera wall. The initial Plinian eruption 480 A.D. (1,580 C years B.P.) produced the Newberry pumice fall deposit which blanketed the east flank of the volcano and areas to the east. About 210 years later, the Paulina Lake ash flow (1,310 C years B.P.) spread from near the south caldera wall to Paulina Lake. The final phase of the eruption produced the Big Obsidian Flow, which covers 1.1 square miles.</p><br>
<p>Newberrys highest point is located 1,500 ft above the southern caldera floor on Paulina Peak, which is just a peak on the southern rim. The volcanos south flank descends into the basaltic flatlands of central Oregon.</p><br>
<h2>Newberry Caldera</h2><br>
<p>Newberry Caldera has possibly existed as long as 500,000 years, when the cone of the volcano is thought to have first collapsed. Subsequent caldera-forming collapse events have further deepened the caldera but volcanic material and lake-bed sediments have largely filled in much of this depth.</p><br>
<p>Within the caldera, there are two lakes (Paulina Lake and East Lake), many cinder cones, lava flows, and obsidian domes. The land area of the caldera is often heavily forested, except in areas where there are more recent volcanic flows and features. Paulina Lake is drained by Paulina Creek, which passes through a narrow gorge through the western part of the caldera rim. East Lake does not have a known outlet and is 40 ft higher than Paulina Lake. Basalt flows 6,700 years old separate the two caldera lakes. Rising 700 ft above this flow is the Central Pumice Cone.</p><br>
<p>Both lakes have hot springs, and drilling in 1981 found that temperatures in the caldera reach 280 &deg;C at 3,057 ft below the caldera floor. This is the highest temperature ever recorded at a dormant Cascade volcano, hotter than even The Geysers of California, the world&#39;s largest producer of geothermal power.</p><br>
<p>The caldera was formed when a large Plinian Eruption sent so much pyroclastic material gushing from its vent that the then-emptied magma chamber collapsed. This was repeated for several eruptions; each forming a slightly smaller caldera. The half-million-year-old (estimated) Teepee Draw tuff covers much of the volcanos shield and was from an eruption with an estimated volume of 10 cumi. This is thought to be the first in a series of caldera-forming eruptions that issued from Newberrys main vent system. One of the later layers is cut by Newberry&#39;s only stream, Paulina Creek.</p><br>
<p>Subsidence of the caldera through time has been partly offset by the deposition of tephra, lava flows, and lake sediment. The USGS has drilled 3,057 ft below the present surface of the caldera and has found that:</p><br>
<p>First 950 ft: Dominated by air-fall pumice, obsidian flows, and under-water erupted ash.</p><br>
<p>950 -: Lake-bottom sediments.</p><br>
<p>1,180 -: Thick layers of pumice-rich ash and breccia.</p><br>
<p>1,640 -: Rhyolitic to dacitic lava flows.</p><br>
<p>2,449 -: Basalt to basaltic-andesite lava flows and breccia.</p><br>
<p>There are several large flows of obsidian in the caldera, one of which, Big Obsidian Flow, was created around 1400 years ago and is thus the most recent caldera eruption. This particular flow erupted from a vent or fissure near the southern wall of the caldera and partially engulfed the Lost Lake pumice ring.</p><br>
<p>Mount Jefferson is a stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc, part of the Cascade Range, and is the second highest mountain in Oregon. It is situated in the far northeastern corner of Linn County on the Jefferson County line, with the lower reaches extending northward into southeastern Marion County. The mountain, about 105 mi east of Corvallis, is federally protected as part of the Mount Jefferson Wilderness. Due to the rugged area, the mountain is one of the hardest volcanoes to reach in the Cascades, though USFS Road 2243 does come within 4 mi of the summit. Jefferson&#39;s craggy and very glacially scarred appearance makes it especially photogenic.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Mount Jefferson (originally called Mount Vancouver by the British) was named in honor of USA President Thomas Jefferson by the Lewis and Clark Expedition.</p><br>
<p>The expedition, which was sponsored by President Jefferson, first saw the peak from the mouth of the Willamette River in March 1806. A Native American name for the mountain is Seekseekqua.</p><br>
<p>The first ascent was probably accomplished by E. C Cross and Ray L. Farmer on 12 August 1888 by way of the south ridge. George J. Pearce, who accompanied Cross and Farmer on the expedition, wrote an account of the climb for the Oregonian newspaper on 22 August 1900. The first climber to reach the summit via the north face was S. S. Mohler in 1903.</p><br>
<p>One of the most complete studies of the volcano was compiled in a large report written in the 1920s by a former professor of geology at the University of Oregon, Edwin T. Hodge. Probably due to its remoteness there has been little work done on a comprehensive study of the mountain since then. The most notable exception was a 1974 study of the volcano&#39;s glacial and volcanic history carried out by Kenneth G. Sutton.</p><br>
<h2>Geology and geography</h2><br>
<p>The average elevation of the terrain around Jefferson is 5500 to 6500 ft, meaning that Jeffersons cone still towers nearly 1 mi above it. Previous studies estimated that the cone is made of roughly equal amounts of tephra and lava, but Suttons 1974 study found half as much tephra as expected. The remainder of the material thought to be tephra was in fact broken lava rock.</p><br>
<p>Sometime before the last reversal of the Earth&#39;s magnetic field 700,000 years ago, the 23.4 mi3 Minto Lavas created a large volcanic plateau formed from coalescing shield volcanoes. They were heavily eroded by glaciers before Jefferson started to grow.</p><br>
<p>Mount Jefferson started life as a highly explosive vent, which in turn built a tephra-rich cone (this same cone now forms the volcano&#39;s core). Much of this structure was subsequently buried under about 5 mi3 of basaltic andesite lava flows that are called the Main Cone Lavas. These lavas form a mass of rock 5 to 40 ft thick near the top of the old cone and become progressively thicker further down the mountain.</p><br>
<p>The lack of lahar (volcanic mudflow) or avalanche deposits associated with the original cone and the Main Cone Lavas indicates that these volcanic eruptions probably occurred in a warm interglacial period. Glaciers did form directly on the Main Cone Lavas and cause erosion later.</p><br>
<p>The volcano then went dormant for an unknown period of time, after which somewhat less than 1 mi3 of andesitic lava flows erupted, forming a second stage cone on top of the original. These flows were thicker and had a higher silica content than the Main Cone Lavas. At the same time, two large cone complexes formed on Jeffersons flanks. The North Complex formed near where Jefferson Park now lies and another complex erupted 2 mi south of the mountains current summit (forming the reddish-brown dacite now seen at Goats Peak). In addition, more silica-rich andesite lava flowed from fissures of the volcanos south flank.</p><br>
<p>A long period of dormancy returned to Jefferson. During that time a succession of large glaciers removed most of the second stage lava along with at least a third of the original cone. Erosion was more severe on Jeffersons western flank and as a result solidified lava flows on the volcanos eastern slope now compose the summit. Jeffersons height before this intense period of glacial erosion is estimated at 12,000 ft. Smaller versions of the ice age glaciers continue to erode Jefferson, with the largest of these being the Whitewater Glacier east of the saddle-like part of the summit ridge. Also south of the summit lies the Waldo Glacier, while to the west and northwest, the Milk Creek, Jefferson Park and Russell Glaciers persist. Sometime between 40,000 and 140,000 years ago during a glacial maximum Jefferson changed its behavior from quiet eruptions of lava to violent explosions of pumice-rich tephra and pyroclastic flows. Mount Jeffersons most recent eruptive episode occurred during the last major glaciation, which culminated about 15,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>Jefferson&#39;s peak is the highest point in both Linn County and Jefferson County, and a point on its north ridge at 9,000 ft is the highest point of Marion County.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<p>The slopes of Mount Jefferson are within the Warm Springs Indian Reservation, and the Mount Jefferson Wilderness of the Willamette National Forest and the Deschutes National Forest.</p><br>
<p>The Mount Jefferson Wilderness area covers 111,177 acre. The area has over 150 lakes. The mountain&#39;s namesake wilderness has 190 mi of trails, including 40 mi of the Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail. In addition to the trails, some of the most popular areas around Mount Jefferson Wilderness include Jefferson Park, Eight Lakes Basin, Marion Lake, Pamelia Lake, Jack Lake, Duffy Lake, Russell Lake, Santiam Lake and Wasco Lake.</p><br>
<p>There are five glaciers on the slopes for Mount Jefferson. They include Whitewater, Waldo, Milk Creek, Russell, and Jefferson Park glaciers. Other geographic features include rock outcrops, steep talus slopes, conifer forests, and alpine meadows.</p><br>
<p>Vegetation is dominated by Douglas-fir, silver fir, mountain hemlock, ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, and several species of cedar. Vine maple, rhododendron, Lupinus polyphyllus (purple lupine), Lupinus luteus (yellow lupine), Indian paintbrush, wild strawberries, and red huckleberries are also common around Mount Jefferson.</p><br>
<p>Dajti  standing at 1,613 m above sea level, is the hausberg of Tirana,</p><br>
<p>Albania. The Dajti belongs to the Skanderbeg range. In winter, the mountain is often covered with snow, and it is a popular retreat to the local population of Tirana that rarely sees snow falls. Its slopes have forests of pines, oak and beech, while its interior contains canyons, waterfalls, caves, a lake, and an ancient castle.</p><br>
<p>The Dajti National Park was declared a national park in 1966, and has an expanded area of about 29,384 hectares since 2006. The area is under shared jurisdiction between the Albanian Agency of Protected Areas (AKZM), and Tirana Municipality Parks and Recreation Agency (APR). In 2017, a new Dajti Mt National Park tourist information center was opened, and is located near the TV and Radio towers along SH47 in Fushe Dajt.</p><br>
<p>The mountain can be reached through a narrow asphalted mountain road onto an area known as Fusha e Dajtit. This was the location of a summer camp but now is the site of many restaurants and radio and TV transmitters. From this small area there is an excellent view of Tirana and its plain. This is the reason this place has been named as the Balcony of Tirana.</p><br>
<p>From June 2005, hikers and visitors of the mountain can use an Austrian built gondola lift from the eastern outskirts of Tirana to Fusha e Dajtit (Plain of Dajti) at 1050 meters altitude. On the summit of Mount Dajti there exist several transmitters of radio and television.</p><br>
<p>Lately, traces of prehistoric settlements and fortifications from later periods have been discovered in the area.</p><br>
<p>A serious environmental problem on the mountain is, how to deal with garbage. This is partially caused by restaurants and hotels that leave rubbish everywhere since there are few garbage bins in the region. Another major problem on the mountain is deforestation. For this responsible are the Ministry of the Environment, the Municipality of the region, the foresters (rangers) and the people who live in the area. Water pollution of the lake and air pollution caused by cars crossing the mountain roads are also problematic.</p><br>
<p>The is a mountain within the German state of Hesse. The  elevation, which is a large plateau formation, is the highest peak in the Rhön Mountains. Between the First and Second World Wars great advances in sailplane development took place on the mountain during the interwar period. Near the summit there is still an airfield used by gliding clubs and pilots of light aircraft.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The German name is derived from Wasenkuppe, Asenberg or Weideberg and means Pasture mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Wasserkuppe lies in the administrative district Fulda 5.3 km north of Gersfeld. Other villages nearby are Poppenhausen (4.7 km west - south west) and Wüstensachsen (5 km east, part of Ehrenberg, Hesse). It is part of the Rhön Biosphere Reserve.</p><br>
<p>The Wasserkuppe sources the spring of the river Fulda (the western source of the Weser) and the river Lütter which joins the Fulda after 50 km.</p><br>
<p>The other peaks near the Wasserkuppe are Abtsrodaer Kuppe (north, 905 m NN), (east, 831.8 m NN) and Pferdskopf (south west, 874.9 m NN).</p><br>
<h2>Aeronautical development</h2><br>
<p>Students from the Darmstadt University of Technology, then known as Technische Hochschule Darmstadt, began flying gliders from the Wasserkuppe as early as 1911, but interest in gliding in Germany increased greatly after 1918 when the Treaty of Versailles restricted the production or use of powered aircraft in the nation. From 1920 onwards, annual gliding competitions were held, leading to records being set and broken for height, distance and duration of unpowered flight. In 1922 became the first glider pilot to use an updraft rising along a mountain slope to stay aloft for a lengthy period. He then founded the world&#39;s first glider pilot school at the Wasserkuppe.</p><br>
<p>The first competition was organised by Oskar Ursinus, who also built the first clubhouse on the Wasserkuppe in 1924 to replace the shipping containers that enthusiasts were using as accommodation up to that point. By 1930, the competition had become an international event, drawing pilots from all over Europe and even the United States.</p><br>
<p>Also in 1924 Rhönvater (Rhön father) Oskar Ursinus convinced the then secretary of air transport for the ministry of transportation to turn the new gliding club into a state funded research organization. This started the Rhön-Rossitten Gesellschaft and as a result, the Wasserkuppe now had a gliding school, workshops for building gliders and a funded research facility. Alexander Lippisch was appointed as the managing director of the new society.</p><br>
<p>Virtually every German aeronautical engineer and test pilot of note during the 1920s and 1930s spent time building, testing, and flying aircraft at the Wasserkuppe, including the Günter brothers, Wolf Hirth, the Horten brothers, Robert Kronfeld, Hans Jacobs, Heini Dittmar, Alexander Lippisch, Willy Messerschmitt, Hanna Reitsch, Peter Riedel, Alexander Schleicher and many, many others. This period saw great advances in new technologies such as flying wings and rocket-powered flights.</p><br>
<p>In the 1930s the "Ehrenhalle" (Hall of Honor) was constructed in the Lilienthal Haus, with heavy bronze doors opening into a large hall with a stained glass window. The centerpiece is a larger-than-life bronze figure of Otto Lilienthal lying on an (empty) tomb. It is a memorial to all pilots who have died in aviation accidents. The inscription on the memorial is Lilienthal&#39;s famous last words: "Opfer müssen gebracht werden" roughly meaning: "Sacrifices must be made."</p><br>
<p>During the Third Reich, gliding activities became largely controlled by the state, and for Hitler Youth pilots and their instructors, proficiency in gliding was viewed as the first step towards the Luftwaffe. Sailplane research was also nationalised under the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Segelflug (DFS — German Research Institute for Sailplane Flight).</p><br>
<p>Following World War II, a US Air Force base, radar station, and surveillance station were established there but when restrictions on German aviation were lifted in 1951, gliding soon returned to the Wasserkuppe where it has remained popular since. Beginning in the 1970s, the newer sport of hang gliding has also found a home there. Following the reunification of Germany and demise of the Soviet Union, the surveillance and radar installations were removed in the 1990s.</p><br>
<p>In 1970, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the first competition, the Deutsches Segelflugmuseum (German Sailplane Museum) was opened on the plateau, with Neil Armstrong a guest of honour at the ceremony. The museum gained a new building in 1987. The Wasserkuppe is also the home of the Oldtimer Segelflugclub (OSC - Oldtimer Gliding Club), dedicated (as its name suggests) to flying vintage sailplanes.</p><br>
<p>Next to the long tradition of sailplanes the Wasserkuppe has become a sports and weekend centre offering a wide selection of activities. Paragliding as well as Snowkiting is offered. In winter the area is used by skiers and snowboarders.</p><br>
<p>Ærø is one of the Danish Baltic Sea islands, and part of the Southern Denmark Region. The name comes from the Danish words ær  and ø .</p><br>
<p>Since 1 January 2007 the whole of Ærø has constituted a single municipality, known as Ærø Kommune. Before that date, there were two municipalities on the island: Ærøskøbing Kommune in the west and Marstal Kommune in the east.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Population (in 2014): 6,383</p><br>
<p>Area: 88 km (island); 91 km (municipality)</p><br>
<p>Length of coastline: 167 km</p><br>
<p>Ærø measures roughly 20 km from northwest to southeast and varies in width from around 4 to 8 km. There are three small towns on the island: the largest is Marstal with a population of 2,266. Ærøskøbing has 925 inhabitants and Søby 496. Fourteen villages and a number of farms complete the island&#39;s pattern of settlement.</p><br>
<p>Ærøskøbing, with its narrow lanes and picturesque 18th-century houses was historically Ærøs chief town, and remains the primary port for ferry connections. Marstal, also known as the "skipper village", from its being the home of so many sailors and captains, is the islands largest town today and is its principal commercial and shopping centre.</p><br>
<p>The countryside is for the most part gently undulating, and there is a several-kilometre-long stretch of 33-metre-high cliffs at Voderup Klint on the west coast. With its generally low traffic density, Ærø is a popular destination for hikers and cyclists. The island&#39;s beaches also attract anglers and artists. As one of the islands making up the South Funen Archipelago, Ærø is favoured by particularly fine weather. It enjoys a higher number of sunshine hours than the average for the rest of Denmark, and the year-round temperature is also a few degrees above the national average.</p><br>
<p>At Olde Mølle, at one of Ærø&#39;s highest points and near the centre of the island, the sculptor Erik Brandt has created a "peace bench", conceived with the intention of providing people with an opportunity to survey the island and its surrounding sea, whilst pondering on the theme of world peace.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological excavations provide evidence of settlements going back to before 8000 BC.</p><br>
<p>As for its more recent history, the period of the duchies is of special interest. During this period — from the 14th century to the year 1864 – Ærø was united and separated, alternately, into a number of enclaves. Ærø was outside the tariff wall of the Kingdom, leading to flourishing smuggling which was a way of living for many of Ærø&#39;s inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>In 1629 the main town of Ærøskøbing burnt down in a great fire. There was no other disaster of comparable scale. In 1750 the island, previously split into exclaves of numerous duchies, was united as single administrative district.</p><br>
<p>Until 1864, Ærø was part of the Danish Duchy of Schleswig – the area of Schleswig/Southern Jutland is now divided between Denmark (Northern Schleswig) and Germany (Southern Schleswig). King Christian IV&#39;s cousin, also named Christian, was the Duke of Ærø from 1622 to 1633, and lived with his concubine Cathrine Griebels at Gråsten Manor House.</p><br>
<p>When the Duke died, a banner was found at Gråsten composed of nine pieces of cloth and in three colours – body colour, sea green, and golden yellow. This banner has provided the inspiration for the flag of Ærø which is seen today all over the island. When Duke Christian died, Ærø was distributed among four of his brothers, and this offers one explanation of why two towns developed in the island, Ærøskøbing and later on Marstal, and why each came to be in their own "country".</p><br>
<p>Gråsten Manor House was abolished in 1766 and the buildings were demolished. The name of Gråsten is still alive today in the farmhouse that stands almost on the same spot as the ducal manor. Gråsten of today offers bed and breakfast accommodation.</p><br>
<p>In 1750, Ærø was united, and has not since been separated. This is marked by the memorial stone at Olde Mølle (English=Ancient mill). At the union, the old Code of Jutland from 1241 was applied and even today some of those rules are still valid.</p><br>
<p>In recent history, the preservation of the area&#39;s local heritage has been paramount among residents. This passion for Ærø was demonstrated in 2000, when the Marstal Maritime School was ordered to close. More than 2,000 islanders (a third of the island) travelled to Copenhagen to protest the closing of the historic school. Ultimately, the government allowed the Maritime School to remain open.</p><br>
<h2>Technology</h2><br>
<p>Ærø has the worlds largest solar power plants, with an area of 18,365 m. It provides a third of Marstals power consumption.</p><br>
<p>Ærø is endeavouring to become self-sufficient in energy, and in 2002 a figure of 40% self-sufficiency in renewable energy was reached. The initiatives have attracted high international recognition and Ærø is considered to be one of the world&#39;s leaders in the field. As of January 2013, the solar plant covers an area of 33,300 m2 as a result of an extension under the Sunstore 4 project.</p><br>
<p>Ærøs three district heating systems of solar collectors have won international acclaim. With the recent expansion, the system in Marstal is now the worlds largest solar collector system for heating.</p><br>
<p>In 2002, three modern wind turbines were erected. The wing tip of these turbines is 100 m above the ground and between them the mills cover 50% of the island&#39;s electricity consumption.</p><br>
<p>28 January 2015 - The EU Horizon 2020 administration has confirmed that the 17 million € application for a demonstration E-ferry is now in the state of Grant Agreement - meaning that the partners in the Horizon application now have 3 months to finish contracting for the subsidies. The objective of the Green Ferry Vision is to perform a feasibility study for the design, production and operation of an innovative low weight ferry for cars and passengers - a ferry only powered by green electricity stored on batteries on board. The ferry design will be well beyond state-of-the-art when it comes to charging powers and capable operating distance. The ferry is to be completed in 2017 with Søby Værft as contractor.</p><br>
<h2>Transport</h2><br>
<p>Ærø is the only island among the larger Danish Baltic Sea islands that is not connected with a bridge, and road traffic is generally low. There are car ferry lines to Als, Funen and Langeland. Ærø also lies within a popular sailboat area, the South Funen Archipelago. A small airport with grassed runways is located near Marstal.</p><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>Povla Frijsh singer was born here in 1881.</p><br>
<p>Claus Lauritz Clausen (1820–1892), born in Ærø, Lutheran clergyman, organizer of United Norwegian Lutheran Church of America and missionary to America</p><br>
<p>Carsten Jensen, born in Marstal, Danish author and political columnist</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>In his 2006 novel We, The Drowned – an epic tale spanning four generations, nearly one hundred years, and two world wars – Carsten Jensen describes the maritime history of Marstal, his native town, where the men were expected to go to sea and the women to be left behind.</p><br>
<p>Bennachie  is a range of hills in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. It has several tops, the highest of which, Oxen Craig, has a height of 528 m . Though not particularly high, compared to other peaks within Scotland, the mountain is very prominent, owing to its isolation and the relative flatness of the surrounding terrain, and dominates the skyline from several viewpoints.</p><br>
<p>The peak that stands out the most visually is Mither Tap (518 m, 1699 feet) and from its top there are good views of the county to the north and east. Most of the tops lie along an east / west ridge, with the exception of Millstone Hill (409 m) an outlier or spur which is separated from and to the south of the main ridge. Mither Tap has an Iron Age fort on its summit. Unlike with many other hilltop forts in the area, there are no signs of vitrification in the stone. Bennachie is visible from a number of distant points; to the north it is visible from Longman Hill, a point considerably to the north.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Some believe that the peak had religious significance to the Bronze Age people who inhabited this area. This theory is supported by the large number of standing stones in the surrounding area. The significance is believed to be connected to the profile of the hill, which is shaped like a female breast, which is reflected in the name "Mither Tap" (Mother Top) and "Bennachie" (Beinn na Ciche: hill of the breast). It has been suggested as a possible site of the battle of Mons Graupius. An alternative Gaelic etymology from *Beinn a Chath, i.e. hill of the battle&#39;, is perhaps a possibility.</p><br>
<p>From 1800 to 1859 common land on the east side of Bennachie was home to a community of squatters known locally as the Colony. A small number of families led a Crofting life often doing skilled work, such as dyking and quarrying, for local landowners. After 1859 the Colony dwindled as the common land was broken up and divided amongst the local estates. However, the last of the original colonists, George Esson, lived on the hill until his death in the 1930s. Visitors to Bennachie can explore the remains of the Colony and extensive work is being done on site and amongst local parish records to determine the history of the Colonists.</p><br>
<p>Mither Tap has an astronomical alignment with the nearby Pictish Fortalice of Caskieben (currently located within Keith Hall). Dr. Arthur Johnston said "the hill of Benochie, a conical elevation about eight miles distant, casts its shadow over Caskieben at the periods of the equinox."</p><br>
<h2>Paths and environment</h2><br>
<p>The range of hills is a popular destination for walkers since it is relatively close to Aberdeen. The Gordon Way is a waymarked trail that traverses the Southern flank of Bennachie between the Visitors Centre in the East and Suie Car Park to the West. Most of the Bennachie range is owned by the Forestry Commission, which maintains a network of paths on and around the hills, several car parks and a visitor centre located at the eastern foot of the range. A volunteer group, the, founded in 1973, helps with this work and with other environmental and archaeological activities on the hill. There are several marked paths, including fairly easy ascents of Oxen Craig and Mither Tap that start from the centre.</p><br>
<p>Derby Dam is a diversion dam on the Truckee River, located between Reno and Fernley in Storey and Washoe counties in the USA state of Nevada. It diverts water that would otherwise feed Pyramid Lake into the Truckee Canal going to the Lake Lahontan reservoir in the Carson River watershed for irrigation use. In doing so, Winnemucca Lake lost inflow and dried up. It is operated by the Truckee-Carson Irrigation District. The dam was named after the Derby Southern Pacific Railroad station.</p><br>
<p>The project was authorized by Ethan A. Hitchcock and built in 1903, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 as the "Derby Diversion Dam."</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The dam was constructed for the USA Bureau of Reclamation following an authorization for construction issued on March 14, 1903. Construction commenced on October 2, 1903 and was completed on May 20, 1905.</p><br>
<p>Mount Thielsen, or Big Cowhorn , is an extinct shield volcano in the Oregon High Cascades, near Mount Bailey. Because eruptive activity ceased 250,000 years ago, glaciers have heavily eroded the volcano&#39;s structure, creating precipitous slopes and a horn-like peak. The spire-like shape of Thielsen attracts lightning strikes and creates fulgurite, an unusual mineral. The prominent horn forms a centerpiece for the Mount Thielsen Wilderness, a reserve for recreational activities such as skiing and hiking.</p><br>
<p>Thielsen was produced by subduction of the Juan de Fuca Plate under the North American Plate. Volcanism near the Cascades dates back to 55 million years ago (mya), and extends from British Columbia to California. Thielsen is part of the High Cascades, a branch of the main Cascades range that includes Oregonian volcanoes less than 3.5 million years old; it is also a member of a group of extinct volcanoes distinguished by their sharp peaks.</p><br>
<p>The area surrounding the volcano was originally inhabited by Chinook Native Americans, and was later encountered by Polish settlers. One of the visitors was Jon Hurlburt, an early explorer of the area who named the volcano after the engineer Hans Thielsen. Later explorers discovered nearby Crater Lake. The volcano was not analyzed until 1884, when a team from the United States Geological Survey sampled its fulgurite deposits.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The area was originally inhabited by Chinook Native Americans, who referred to the mountain as "Hischokwolas&quot the Klamath call it "hisc&#39;akwaleeas". Jon Hurlburt, a Polish explorer, renamed the volcano after Hans Thielsen, a railroad engineer and builder who played a major role in the construction of the California and Oregon Railroad.</p><br>
<p>In 1884 a United States Geological Survey team headed by J. S. Diller began studying the mountains of the Cascade Range. Their intended destinations included Thielsen, which was climbed and sampled for its fulgurite variant. Thielsen&#39;s spire-like top is hit by lightning so frequently that some rocks on the summit have melted into a rare mineraloid known as lechatelierite, a variety of fulgurite. The mountain has earned the nickname "the lightning rod of the Cascades".</p><br>
<p>Apart from study, Thielsen and the rest of the Crater Lake area features heavily into 19th- and early 20th-century exploration. In 1853, miners from Yreka first described Crater Lake; one called it "the bluest water he had ever seen", another "Deep Blue Lake." The first published description was written by Chauncy Nye for the Jacksonville Sentinel in 1862. Nye recalled an expedition of gold prospectors where they passed a lake of a deep blue color. Native Americans lived in the area and grew irritable towards new settlers in the area. In 1865, Fort Klamath was built as a protective sanctuary. A wagon road was built to connect the Rogue Valley to the building. In late 1865, two hunters ventured upon the lake; more explorers followed. By then, the lake became famous for its distinctive color, and crowds flocked to see it. The first non-Native American to stand on the shore of Crater Lake was Sergeant Orsen Stearns, who climbed down into the caldera. A friend, Captain F.B. Sprague, gave it the name "Lake Majesty." Tourism continued until May 22, 1902; on that day, Theodore Roosevelt designated the lake and surrounding area a national park.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Regional</h3><br>
<p>The Cascade Range was produced by convergence of the North American Plate with the subducting Juan de Fuca Plate. Active volcanism has taken place for approximately 36 million years; the nearby Challis Range features complexes as old as 55 mya. Most geologists believe that activity in the Cascades has been relatively intermittent, producing up to 3,000 volcanic calderas at a time. Frequent volcanism within the last 10,000 years created complexes from Mount Garibaldi in British Columbia to north California&#39;s Lassen Peak complex. Remarkably different from state to state, the volcanism ranges from large volcanoes to zones of many smaller geologic features such as lava shields and cinder cones. The Cascade volcanoes are divided into two large sectors, called the High Cascades and the Western Cascades; Thielsen is part of the High Cascades, which are east of the Western Cascades.</p><br>
<h3>Local</h3><br>
<p>Diamond Lake, formed by one of Thielsens eruptions, lies to the west of Mount Thielsen and beyond lies Mount Bailey, a much less eroded and younger stratovolcano. Thielsens sharp peak is a prominent feature of the skyline visible from Crater Lake National Park. All three volcanoes are part of the Oregon High Cascades, a range that sections off the stratovolcanoes of Oregon that are younger than 3.5 million years. The High Cascades include Mount Jefferson, the Three Sisters, Broken Top, and other stratovolcanoes and remnants.</p><br>
<p>Rock in the area ages from the Upper Pliocene and Quaternary. Basalt and basaltic andesite comprise newer volcanoes atop the High Cascades: major volcanic centers include Mount Hood, Three Sisters-Broken Top, Mount Mazama (Crater Lake), and Mount Jefferson. All have produced diverse eruptions, including both lava flows and pyroclastic eruptions, and variability in composition between dacite, basalt, and even rhyolite (except for Mount Hood, which is not known to have produced rhyolite). Thielsen is part of a series of extinct volcanoes in Oregon termed the Matterhorns for their steep, spire-like summits; Thielsen is the highest at 9,182 ft. Other Matterhorns include Mount Washington, Three Fingered Jack, Mount Bailey, and Diamond Peak. Unlike other mountains in the High Cascades, all these volcanoes became extinct 250,000 to 100,000 years ago, and their summits endured the last few ice ages, accounting for their distinct shapes.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Thielsen has been so deeply eroded by glaciers that there is no summit crater and the upper part of the mountain is more or less a horn. Thielsen is a relatively old Cascade volcano, and cone-building eruptions stopped relatively early. Erosion caused during the last two or three ice ages remains visible. Subsidence of the last material in Thielsen&#39;s crater moved its youngest lava more than 1,000 ft above the active crater.</p><br>
<p>On the mountain past lava flows are diverse, some as thick as 33 ft, others as thin as 1 ft. Stack-like figures composed of breccia and past flow deposits are as thick as 328 ft. The placement of these flows suggest that they were generated by splatter emitted by fountains in the cone. On the sides of the mountain are bands of palagonite, a clay formed from iron-rich tephra making up the body of the volcano. Basalt taken from the volcano contained pyroxene, hypersthene material, and feldspars.</p><br>
<p>Other notable formations in the vicinity include Howlock Mountain, Windigo Butte, and Tolo Mountain. Other than Crater Lake, little water flows on the surface. In canyons excavated by glaciers, small streams have formed.</p><br>
<h3>Composition</h3><br>
<p>The volcanic cone of Mount Thielsen sits atop prior shield volcanoes, and has a volume of 2 mi3. The cone was built from basaltic andesite, a common component of other shield volcanoes in the Oregon Cascades, A coalesced volcanic cone, it formed as pyroclastics erupted and fountains spewed lava. Glaciers cut and deformed the cone, eroding its upper sector. This erosion opened the interior of Thielsen for observation. Within the cone, lava flows, pyroclastic flow deposits, and strata of tephra, and volcanic ash, are easily visible. Potassium-argon dating of deposits in the cone suggests that Thielsen is at least 290,000 years old. Since its eruption stopped about 250,000 to 100,000 years ago, the period of eruptive activity was short in time. The eruptions of the cone came in three phases: a period where lava flows built up its cone, one where more explosive pyroclastic eruptions took place, and the final period, in which pyroclastic and material of lava-based origin were erupted together forming a weak cone encircled by long deposits.</p><br>
<h3>Glaciation</h3><br>
<p>Glaciers were present on the volcano until the conclusion of the Little Ice Age, at the beginning of the 20th century. Pleistocene glaciers have largely eroded Thielsen&#39;s caldera&mdash;leading to exposure of its contents. The small Lathrop Glacier in the northern cirque of the volcano is the only extant glacier on Mount Thielsen. While the glaciation was extensive, volcanic ash from eruptive activity at Mount Mazama has almost certainly masked contents.</p><br>
<h3>Fulgurites</h3><br>
<p>Fulgurites (substances that form when lightning melts rock) on the volcano are restricted to the very pinnacle of the mountain, and are only found between the top 5 ft and 10 ft of its summit. Lightning strikes the summit regularly, creating patches of "brownish black to olive-black glass" that resemble "greasy splotches of enamel paint". These range from a few centimeters in diameter to long, narrow lines up to 30 cm long. Their appearance also varies: while some patches are rough and spongy, others are flat. Inspection of the fulgurite reveals a homogenous glass over a layer of basalt; in between, a stratum made of materials such as feldspar, pyroxene, and olivine exists.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>A grove of enormous incense cedars exists near Diamond Lake, and there is a forest of ponderosa pine at the nearby Emile Big Tree Trail. The Umpqua National Forest features swordferns and Douglas firs. Rocky Mountain elks, pronghorns, and mule deer, bobcats, black bears, and mountain lions live in the Fremont–Winema National Forest. The forest&#39;s rivers support populations of trout, and the lakes contain fish such as the largemouth bass. The forest is inhabited by avian species such as mallards, American bald eagles, Canada geese, and whistling swans. Peregrine falcons and Warner suckers also infrequently enter its boundaries.</p><br>
<p>The lower slopes of Mount Thielsen are heavily forested, with low diversity of plant species. A forest of mountain hemlock and fir grows up to the timberline at about 7,200 ft. Near the peak of the volcano, whitebark pine prevails.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Mount Thielsen lies in the southern section of the Mount Thielsen Wilderness, which is part of the Deschutes, Umpqua and Fremont–Winema national forests. On the west, the wilderness borders the Oregon Cascades Recreation Area, a 157,000 square miles area set aside by Congress in 1984. The wilderness and forests offer several activities related to the mountain, such as hiking and skiing. The wilderness covers 55,100 acre around the volcano, featuring lakes and alpine parks. It also contains 26 mi of the Pacific Crest National Scenic Trail, accessible from a trailhead along Oregon Highway 138. In 2009 the trail was selected as Oregon&#39;s best hike. Three skiing trails exist on the mountain, all of black diamond rating. They follow several trails through the wilderness from the bowl of the mountain.</p><br>
<p>Mount Bailey is a relatively young tephra cone and shield volcano in the Cascade Range, located on the opposite side of Diamond Lake from Mount Thielsen in southern Oregon, United States. Bailey consists of a 2,000 ft-high main cone on top of an old basaltic andesite shield volcano. With a volume of 8 to 9 km3, Mount Bailey is slightly smaller than neighboring Diamond Peak. Mount Bailey is a popular destination for recreational activities. Well known in the Pacific Northwest region as a haven for skiing in the winter months, the mountains transportation, instead of a conventional chairlift, is provided by snowcats—treaded, tractor-like vehicles that can ascend Baileys steep, snow-covered slopes and carry skiers to the higher reaches of the mountain. In the summer months, a 5 mi hiking trail gives foot access to Bailey&#39;s summit.</p><br>
<p>Native Americans are credited with the first ascents of Bailey. Spiritual leaders held feasts and prayer vigils on the summit.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The origin of the mountains name is a matter of dispute. Older maps show its name as either "Old Baldy" or "Old Bailey", "Bailey" possibly being a drafting error. The summits bald, burnt-over appearance might indicate the origin of the designation "Baldy". No record of a person named Bailey who was connected with the peak has been found. In 1992 the Oregon Geographic Names Board voted to name the mountain in honor of naturalists Vernon and Florence Bailey. According to William G. Steel, the Klamath name for the mountain was Youxlokes, which means "Medicine Mountain". According to Klamath tradition, their medicine men and priests would feast on the mountain&#39;s summit and commune with the upper world.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Bailey is part of the High Cascades in the western United States. The High Cascades have long been glaciated, by both Pacific-bred storms and natural, elevation-caused, glaciation. In fact, glaciation probably formed on them as early as the late Miocene. Over time, as the range built up, newer activity diminished older Tertiary age rock. Creating lava plateaus, Pliocene activity, mostly basaltic and andesitic, was probably responsible for the original cones at Bailey, Thielsen, and Union Peak.</p><br>
<p>Mount Bailey heads the Mount Bailey chain, which consists of the mountain and smaller cinder cones trending north. Similarly to its neighbor Mount Thielsen, it is a shield volcano with precipitous summit slopes, and the two are almost equal in appearance. Built around the same time as Rodley Butte, according to morphological study, the current volcano is no more than 100,000 years old, and formed relatively close to Diamond Peak&#39;s current cone. Despite its similarity to Rodley Butte, both in age and original composition, Bailey switched from erupting basaltic andesite to pure andesite (silicon dioxide).</p><br>
<p>Bailey is comprised by a central tephra cone, upon which basaltic andesite eruptions</p><br>
<p>streamed over, building up to create the current volcano. Eventually switching to andesite, it may have been built over several eruptions or even eruptive periods, judging from the silicic nature of its rock. It is currently inactive, having been since approximately the time Mount Mazama became active, sometime in the early Pleistocene epoch.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology and recreation</h2><br>
<p>Diverse flora exists on Mount Bailey. Starting at the lower slopes, the prominent tree type is standard pine, eventually changing to a landscape of mountain hemlock, western white pine, and Shasta fir.</p><br>
<p>Bailey is a popular hiking and skiing site, due to its steep climbs and views of Diamond Lake. It is accessible from Oregon Route 230, starting at the Fox Spring trailhead. Following the Mount Bailey Trail, part of the Diamond Lake Recreational Area, hikers can see "panoramas to the northeast of Diamond Lake and Bailey&#39;s dizzying avalanche bowl". To skiers, the peak is known for its method of transportation, featuring snowcats.</p><br>
<p>The Eiger is a 3,967 m mountain of the Bernese Alps, overlooking Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen in the Bernese Oberland of Switzerland, just north of the main watershed and border with Valais. It is the easternmost peak of a ridge crest that extends across the Mönch to the Jungfrau at 4,158 m, constituting one of the most emblematic sights of the Swiss Alps. While the northern side of the mountain rises more than 3,000 m  above the two valleys of Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen, the southern side faces the large glaciers of the Jungfrau-Aletsch area, the most glaciated region in the Alps. The most notable feature of the Eiger is its 1,800 m north face of rock and ice, named Eigerwand or Nordwand, which is the biggest north face in the Alps. This huge face towers over the resort of Kleine Scheidegg at its base, on the homonymous pass connecting the two valleys.</p><br>
<p>The first ascent of the Eiger was made by Swiss guides Christian Almer and and Irishman Charles Barrington, who climbed the west flank on August 11, 1858. The north face, considered amongst the most challenging and dangerous ascents, was first climbed in 1938 by an Austrian-German expedition. The Eiger has been highly publicized for the many tragedies involving climbing expeditions. Since 1935, at least sixty-four climbers have died attempting the north face, earning it the German nickname Mordwand, literally "murder(ous) wall"—a pun on its correct title of Nordwand (North Wall).</p><br>
<p>Although the summit of the Eiger can be reached by experienced climbers only, a railway tunnel runs inside the mountain, and two internal stations provide easy access to viewing-windows carved into the rock face. They are both part of the Jungfrau Railway line, running from Kleine Scheidegg to the Jungfraujoch, between the Mönch and the Jungfrau, at the highest railway station in Europe. The two stations within the Eiger are Eigerwand (behind the north face) and Eismeer (behind the south face), at around 3,000 metres.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The Eiger is mentioned in records dating back to the 13th century, but there is no clear indication of how exactly the peak gained its name. The three mountains of the ridge are commonly referred to as the Virgin (German: Jungfrau – translates to "virgin" or "maiden"), the Monk (Mönch), and the Ogre (Eiger; the standard German word for ogre is Oger).</p><br>
<p>The name has been linked to the Latin term acer, meaning "sharp" or "pointed", but more commonly to the German eigen, meaning "own".</p><br>
<h2>Geographic setting and description</h2><br>
<p>The Eiger is located within the Bernese Oberland region of the canton of Bern, between the valleys and municipalities of Lauterbrunnen (west) and Grindelwald (east). It is located 2.2 km northeast of the Mönch and 5.6 km northeast of the Jungfrau, in the northeastern part of the Bernese Alps. The nearest settlements are Grindelwald (5 km), Lauterbrunnen and Wengen (both 7 km). The Eiger has three faces, north(west), west and southeast. The east ridge from the summit to the Ostegg (2,709 m), named Mittellegi, is the longest on the Eiger. The north face overlooks the pass and resort of Kleine Scheidegg (3 km), or more precisely the region east of it, the north face lying entirely in the municipality of Grindelwald. The latter mountain pass lies between the valleys of Lauterbrunnen and Grindelwald and connects the lower Männlichen-Tschuggen range to the Eiger. All the aforementioned localities are connected to Interlaken via mountain railways.</p><br>
<p>The Eiger does not properly form part of the main chain of the Bernese Alps, which borders the canton of Valais and forms the watershed between the Rhine and the Rhône, but constitutes a huge limestone buttress, projecting from the crystalline basement of the Mönch across the Eigerjoch. Consequently, all sides of the mountain feed the same river, the Lütschine, through the Weisse Lütschine on the west side (west face of the Eiger) and through the Schwarze Lütschine on the east side (north and east faces of the Eiger). Therefore, all the water running down the Eiger converges at the foot of the Männlichen in Zweilütschinen, 10 km northwest of the summit, where the Lütschine proper begins its course to Lake Brienz and the Aare. Although the north face of the Eiger is almost free of ice, significant glaciers lie at the other sides of the mountain. The Eiger Glacier flows on the west side of the Eiger, from the crest connecting it to the Mönch down to 2,400 m, south of Eigergletscher railway station, and feeds the Weisse Lütschine, through the Trümmelbach. On the east side, the Eismeer (well visible from the windows of Eismeer railway station) flows from the Mönch down to 1,300 m through the Lower Grindelwald Glacier system, which feeds the Schwarze Lütschine.</p><br>
<p>The massive wall of the Jungfrau, Mönch and Eiger itself constitutes an emblematic sight of the Swiss Alps and is well visible from many places on the Swiss Plateau and the Jura Mountains. The higher Finsteraarhorn (4,270 m) and Aletschhorn (4,190 m), which are located about 10 km to the south, are generally less visible and situated in the middle of glaciers in less accessible areas. As opposed to the north side, the south and east sides of the range consist of large valley glaciers extending for about 20 km, the largest (beyond the Eiger drainage basin) being those of Aletsch, Fiesch and Aare, and is thus uninhabited. The whole area, the Jungfrau-Aletsch, comprising the highest summits and largest glaciers of the Bernese Alps, was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2001.</p><br>
<p>In July 2006, a piece of the Eiger amounting to approximately 700,000 cubic metres of rock fell from the east face. As it had been noticeably cleaving for several weeks and fell into an uninhabited area, there were no injuries and no buildings were hit.</p><br>
<h2>North face</h2><br>
<p>The Nordwand, German for "north wall" or "north face," is the north face of the Eiger (also known as the Eigernordwand: "Eiger north wall" or Eigerwand). It is one of the three great north faces of the Alps, along with the north faces of the Matterhorn and the Grandes Jorasses (known as the Trilogy). It is about 1,800 m (5,900 ft) tall and overlooks Kleine Scheidegg and Grindelwald. At 2,866 metres inside the mountain lies the Eigerwand railway station. The station is connected to the north face by a tunnel opening at the face, which has sometimes been used to rescue climbers. The Eiger Trail, at the base of the north face, runs from Eigergletscher to Alpiglen railway stations.</p><br>
<p>It was first climbed on July 24, 1938 by Andreas Heckmair, Ludwig Vörg, Heinrich Harrer and Fritz Kasparek, a German–Austrian group. The group had originally consisted of two independent teams; Harrer and Kasparek were joined on the face by Heckmair and Vörg, who had started their ascent a day later and had been helped by the fixed rope that the lead group had left across the Hinterstoisser Traverse. The two groups, led by the experienced Heckmair, cooperated on the more difficult later pitches, and finished the climb roped together as a single group of four.</p><br>
<p>A portion of the upper face is called "The White Spider", as snow-filled cracks radiating from an ice-field resemble the legs of a spider. Harrer used this name for the title of his book about his successful climb, Die Weisse Spinne (translated into English as The White Spider: The Classic Account of the Ascent of the Eiger). During the first successful ascent, the four men were caught in an avalanche as they climbed the Spider, but all had enough strength to resist being swept off the face.</p><br>
<p>Since then, the north face has been climbed many times. Today it is regarded as a formidable challenge more because of the increased rockfall and diminishing ice-fields than because of its technical difficulties, which are exceeded by the 8,000 m peaks in the Himalaya and Karakoram. Climbers are increasingly electing to challenge the Eiger in winter, when the crumbling face is strengthened by ice.</p><br>
<p>Since 1935, at least sixty-four climbers have died attempting the north face, earning it the German nickname, Mordwand, or "murderous wall", a play on the face&#39;s German name Nordwand.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing history</h2><br>
<p>While the summit was reached without much difficulty in 1858 by a complex route on the west flank, the battle to climb the north face has captivated the interest of climbers and non-climbers alike. Before it was successfully climbed, most of the attempts on the face ended tragically and the Bernese authorities even banned climbing it and threatened to fine any party that should attempt it again. But the enthusiasm which animated the young talented climbers from Austria and Germany finally vanquished its reputation of unclimbability when a party of four climbers successfully reached the summit in 1938 by what is known as the "1938" or "Heckmair" route.</p><br>
<p>The climbers that attempted the north face could be easily watched through the telescopes from the Kleine Scheidegg, a pass between Grindelwald and Lauterbrunnen, connected by rail. The contrast between the comfort and civilization of the railway station and the agonies of the young men slowly dying a short yet uncrossable distance away led to intensive coverage by the international media.</p><br>
<p>After World War II, the north face was climbed twice in 1947, first by a party of two French guides, Louis Lachenal and Lionel Terray, then by a Swiss party consisting of H. Germann, with Hans and Karl Schlunegger.</p><br>
<h3>First ascent</h3><br>
<p>The first ascent was made by the western flank on August 11, 1858 by Charles Barrington with guides Christian Almer and Peter Bohren. They started at 3:00 a.m. from Wengen. Barrington describes the route much as it is followed today, staying close to the edge of the north face much of the way. They reached the summit at about noon, stayed for some 10 minutes and descended in about four hours. Barrington describes the reaching of the top, saying, "the two guides kindly gave me the place of first man up." Their ascent was confirmed by observation of a flag left on the summit. According to Harrer&#39;s The White Spider, Barrington was originally planning to make the first ascent of the Matterhorn, but his finances did not allow him to travel there as he was already staying in the Eiger region.</p><br>
<h3>Attempts on the north face</h3><br>
<h4>1935</h4><br>
<p>In 1935 two young German climbers from Bavaria, Karl Mehringer and Max Sedlmeyer, arrived at Grindelwald to attempt to climb the face. They waited a long time for good weather and when the clouds finally cleared they started. The two climbers reached the height of the Eigerwand station and made their first bivouac. On the following day, because of the greater difficulties, they gained little height. On the third day they made hardly any vertical ground. That night a storm broke and the mountain was hidden in fog, and then it began to snow. Avalanches of snow began to sweep the face and the clouds closed over it. Two days later, there was a short moment when the clouds cleared and the mountain was visible for a while. The two men were glimpsed, now a little higher and about to bivouac for the fifth time. Then the fog came down again and hid the climbers. A few days later the weather finally cleared, revealing a completely white north face. The two climbers were found later frozen to death at 3,300 m, at a place now known as "Death Bivouac".</p><br>
<h4>1936</h4><br>
<p>The next year ten young climbers from Austria and Germany came to Grindelwald and camped at the foot of the mountain. Before their attempts started one of them was killed during a training climb, and the weather was so bad during that summer that, after waiting for a change and seeing none on the way, several members of the party gave up. Of the four that remained, two were Bavarians, Andreas Hinterstoisser and Toni Kurz, and two were Austrians, Willy Angerer and. When the weather improved they made a preliminary exploration of the lowest part of the face. Hinterstoisser fell 37 m but was not injured. A few days later the four men finally began the ascent of the face. They climbed quickly, but on the next day, after their first bivouac, the weather changed; clouds came down and hid the group to the observers. They did not resume the climb until the following day, when, during a break, the party was seen descending, but the climbers could be seen only intermittently from the ground. The group had no choice but to retreat, since Angerer had suffered serious injuries from falling rock. The party became stuck on the face when they could not recross the difficult Hinterstoisser Traverse, from which they had taken the rope they had first used to climb it. The weather then deteriorated for two days. They were ultimately swept away by an avalanche, which only Kurz survived, hanging on a rope. Three guides started on an extremely perilous rescue attempt. They failed to reach him but came within shouting distance and learned what had happened. Kurz explained the fate of his companions: one had fallen down the face, another was frozen above him, and the third had fractured his skull in falling and was hanging dead on the rope.</p><br>
<p>In the morning the three guides came back, traversing the face from a hole near the Eigerwand station and risking their lives under incessant avalanches. Toni Kurz was still alive but almost helpless, with one hand and one arm completely frozen. Kurz hauled himself off the cliff after cutting loose the rope that bound him to his dead teammate below and climbed back onto the face. The guides were not able to pass an unclimbable overhang that separated them from Kurz. They managed to give him a rope long enough to reach them by tying two ropes together. While descending, Kurz could not get the knot to pass through his carabiner. He tried for hours to reach his rescuers who were only a few metres below him. Then he began to lose consciousness. One of the guides, climbing on anothers shoulders, was able to touch the tip of Kurzs crampons with his ice-axe but could not reach higher. Kurz was unable to descend further and, completely exhausted, died slowly.</p><br>
<h4>1937</h4><br>
<p>An attempt was made in 1937 by and Ludwig Vörg. Although the attempt was unsuccessful, they were nonetheless the first climbers who returned alive from a serious attempt on the face. They started the climb on 11 August and reached a high point of a few rope lengths above Death Bivouac. A storm then broke and after three days on the wall they had to retreat. This was the first successful withdrawal from a significant height on the wall.</p><br>
<h3>First ascent of the north face</h3><br>
<p>The north face was first climbed on July 24, 1938 by Anderl Heckmair, Ludwig Vörg, Heinrich Harrer and Fritz Kasparek in a German–Austrian party. The party had originally consisted of two independent teams: Harrer (who did not have a pair of crampons on the climb) and Kasparek were joined on the face by Heckmair and Vörg, who had started their ascent a day later and had been helped by the fixed rope that the lead team had left across the Hinterstoisser Traverse. The two groups, led by the experienced Heckmair, decided to join their forces and roped together as a single group of four. Heckmair later wrote: "We, the sons of the older Reich, united with our companions from the Eastern Border to march together to victory."</p><br>
<p>The expedition was constantly threatened by snow avalanches and climbed as quickly as possible between the falls. On the third day a storm broke and the cold was intense. The four men were caught in an avalanche as they climbed "the Spider," the snow-filled cracks radiating from an ice-field on the upper face, but all possessed sufficient strength to resist being swept off the face. The members successfully reached the summit at four o&#39;clock in the afternoon. They were so exhausted that they only just had the strength to descend by the normal route through a raging blizzard.</p><br>
<h3>Other routes</h3><br>
<p>1857: First attempt by Christian Almer, Christian Kaufmann, guiding the Viennese alpinist Sigismund Porges. They did manage the first ascent of neighboring Mönch, while Porges has the second ascend of the Eiger in July 1861 with the guides Christian Michel, Hans and Peter Baumann.</p><br>
<p>1858: First ascent, by the west flank, 11 August (Christian Almer and guiding Charles Barrington). According to Harrer&#39;s "The White Spider," Barrington would have attempted the first Matterhorn ascent instead, but his finances did not allow him to travel there as he was already staying in the Eiger region.</p><br>
<p>1864 (Jul 27): Fourth ascent, and first ascent by a woman, Lucy Walker, who was part of a group of six guides (including Christian Almer and Melchior Anderegg) and five clients, including her brother Horace Walker</p><br>
<p>1871: First ascent by the southwest ridge, 14 July (Christian Almer, Christian Bohren, and Ulrich Almer guiding W. A. B. Coolidge and Meta Brevoort).</p><br>
<p>1890: First ascent in winter, and Christian Jossi guiding C. W. Mead and G. F. Woodroffe.</p><br>
<p>1921: 10 September: First ascent via the Mittellegi ridge by Fritz Amatter, Samuel Brawand, Yuko Maki and Fritz Steuri.</p><br>
<p>1924: First ski ascent and descent via the Eiger glacier by Englishman Arnold Lunn and the Swiss Fritz Amacher, Walter Amstutz and Willy Richardet.</p><br>
<p>1932: First ascent of the northeast face ("Lauper route") by Hans Lauper, Alfred Zürcher, Alexander Graven and Josef Knubel</p><br>
<p>1970: First ski descent over the west flank, by Sylvain Saudan.</p><br>
<p>1986: Welshman Eric Jones becomes the first person to BASE jump from the Eiger.</p><br>
<p>1991: First ascent, Metanoia Route, North Face, solo, winter, without bolts, Jeff Lowe.</p><br>
<p>1992: 18 July: Three BMG/UIAGM/IFMGA clients died in a fall down the West Flank: Willie Dunnachie; Douglas Gaines; and Phillip Davies. They had ascended the mountain via the Mittellegi Ridge.</p><br>
<p>2006: 14 June: François Bon and Antoine Montant make the first speedflying descent of the Eiger.</p><br>
<p>2006: 15 July: Approximately 700,000 cubic metres (20 million cubic feet) of rock from the east side collapses. No injuries or damage were reported.</p><br>
<p>2015: 23 July: A team of British Para-Climbers reached the summit via the West Flank Route. The team included John Churcher, the world&#39;s first blind climber to summit the Eiger, sight guided by the team leader Mark McGowan. Colin Gourlay enabled the ascent of other team members, including Al Taylor who has multiple sclerosis, and the young autistic climber Jamie Owen from North Wales. The ascent was filmed by the adventure filmmakers, Euan Ryan & Willis Morris of Finalcrux Films.</p><br>
<h2>Climbs and attempts on the north face</h2><br>
<h3>1930s and 1940s</h3><br>
<p>1934: First attempt on the face, by Willy Beck, Kurt Löwinger and Georg Löwinger, reaching 2,900 m.</p><br>
<p>1935: Attempt by the Germans Karl Mehringer and Max Sedlmeyer. They froze to death at 3,300 m, a place now known as "Death Bivouac."</p><br>
<p>1936: Four Austrian and German climbers, Andreas Hinterstoisser, Toni Kurz, Willy Angerer and, died on the face in severe weather conditions during a retreat from Death Bivouac.</p><br>
<p>1938: Alpine Journal editor Edward Lisle Strutt calls the face "an obsession for the mentally deranged" and "the most imbecile variant since mountaineering first began."</p><br>
<p>1938: First ascent of the north face by Anderl Heckmair, Heinrich Harrer, Fritz Kasparek and Ludwig Vörg, achieved in three days.</p><br>
<p>1947 (July 14–16): Second ascent of the face by the Frenchmen Lionel Terray and Louis Lachenal.</p><br>
<p>1947 (August 4–5): Third ascent by the Swiss climbers, Karl Schlunegger and Gottfried Jermann</p><br>
<h3>1950s</h3><br>
<p>1950 (July 26): Fourth ascent in one very long day with a bivouac on the summit by Leo Forstenlechner and Erich Wascak. They overtake Swiss climbers Jean Fuchs, Marcel Hamel, Raymond Monney and Robert Seiler, who achieve the fifth ascent on 27 July.</p><br>
<p>1957: Two Italian (Claudio Corti and Stefano Longhi) and two German climbers (Franz Meyer and Gunther Nothdurft) encounter extreme difficulties in the higher part of the route, as Nothdurft becomes ill and Longhi, who is suffering from severe frostbite, falls near "the Spider" and cannot be lifted by his companions. Corti (who has been in turn hit by a falling stone) becomes the first man rescued from the face from above in a famous 54-man rescue action (first undertaken by volunteer climbers and non-Swiss guides) when German guide Alfred Hellepart is lowered from the summit on a steel cable by Ludwig Grammingers rescue system. Longhi is not so lucky, and dies of exposure before he can be rescued. Meyer and Nothdurft died in an avalanche on their descent of the Eigers west face after completing the 14th ascent of the north face (they had left the injured Corti with all their provisions—including a small tent—and were trying to descend from the mountain and call rescue). The body of Longhi remained on the face for more than two years before being recovered.</p><br>
<p>Claudio Corti, being the sole survivor, was quite wrongly castigated by some quarters of the international press, and was held responsible for the disappearance of the two German climbers Northdurft and Mayer (Northdurft had already soloed to the Swallows Nest and back). He was accused of various dark deeds, even of pushing the Germans off the face. Corti actually thought he had done the first Italian ascent of the face until it was pointed out that he had finished the climb tied to the back of another climber.</p><br>
<p>1958: Kurt Diemberger and Wolfgang Stefan make the thirteenth ascent. As the bodies of Nothdurft and Meyer were found later on the descent route from the Eiger—both had been killed by an avalanche—Diemberger and Stefan were finally awarded the 14th ascent of the face.</p><br>
<p>1959: Adolf Derungs and Lucas Albrecht, two Swiss masons, climb the face with very primitive equipment. Derungs wore four shirts one on top of another and Albrecht carried an old overcoat as far as the Spider. Both students, brave to the point of rashness and very tough, descend by night by the west flank. Three years later, in 1962, Derungs disappears while attempting a solo ascent of the north face.</p><br>
<h3>1960s</h3><br>
<p>1961: 6–12 March: First winter ascent of the face by Toni Kinshofer, and.</p><br>
<p>1961: 30 August–2 September: First Czechoslovak ascent of the face by and (19th overall).</p><br>
<p>1961: 31 August–2 September: First Polish ascent of the face by and Jan Mostowski (20th overall).</p><br>
<p>1962: Don Whillans climbing with Chris Bonington aborted his only attempt at the North face (arriving ahead of a large rescue team) to rescue Brian Nally, a British climber whose companion, Barry Brewster, had fallen and was badly injured on the Second Icefield. Brewsters body eventually fell from the face&#39; and Nally was brought down to safety.</p><br>
<p>1962: First all-Italian ascent of the face by Armando Aste, Pierlorenzo Acquistapace, Gildo Airoldi, Andrea Mellano, Romano Perego, and Franco Solina.</p><br>
<p>1962: First American ascent of the face by John Harlin, with German Konrad Kirch.</p><br>
<p>1962: First British ascent of the face, by Chris Bonington and Ian Clough.</p><br>
<p>1962: Two young climbers finished the climb just after Clough and Bonington (who overtook them); their names were withheld to avert a flood of ascents of the Eiger&#39;s north face. They were very young, their equipment was rudimentary, and the letter they left their parents galvanized police action; the police were waiting for them on their return.</p><br>
<p>1963: 2–3 August: First solo ascent of the face by, in around 18 hours of climbing.</p><br>
<p>1963: 15 August: Two Spanish climbers, and, die in a storm.</p><br>
<p>1963: 27–31 December: Three Swiss guides complete the first descent of the face, retrieving the bodies of Navarro and Rabadá from the "White Spider."</p><br>
<p>1964: 1–3 September: German Daisy Voog becomes the first woman to reach the summit via the face (with Werner Bittner).</p><br>
<p>1965: August: Harry Stewart, Mitchell Millar (UK) Al & Tad Katzmarek (Polish) reach the Ramp, Stewart and Katzmarek cousins retreat, Millar solo to summit.</p><br>
<p>1966: March 22: After a fixed rope breaks, American John Harlin falls to his death while attempting a new route: the direttissima, or "most direct" route. His colleague, Scotsman Dougal Haston, joins the competing team of, Günter Strobel and Roland Votteler, and they go on to complete the first direttissima (they reach the summit on 25 March, after one months siege). The new route is named the "John Harlin Route" in Harlins honour.</p><br>
<p>1968: 28–31 July: First ascent of the north pillar, by a Polish team: Krzysztof Cielecki, Tadeusz Łaukajtys, Adam Zyzak.</p><br>
<h3>1970s</h3><br>
<p>1970: Leo Dickinson, Eric Jones, Pete Minks and Cliff Phillips (GB) make the first complete film of the climb.</p><br>
<p>1971: First Belgian ascent of the face by Renaat Van Malderen and Vincent de Waele.</p><br>
<p>1971: Peter Siegert and Martin Biock are winched from above Death Bivouac to a helicopter, the first such successful rescue.</p><br>
<p>1973: First All Female Ascent of the face by Wanda Rutkiewicz, Danuta Gellner-Wach and Stefania Egierszdorff. All Polish.</p><br>
<p>1974: Reinhold Messner and Peter Habeler climb the face in 10 hours. Chris Kopcznski and John Roskelley first all US team climb the face en route home from the Pamir Mountains.</p><br>
<p>1975: Second winter and the first British winter ascent of the 1938 route by Joe Tasker and Dick Renshaw. This was the first Alpine Style ascent of the North Face in winter - completing the climb from bottom to top in one push. It was also the first time the face had been climbed in winter without recourse to fixed ropes.</p><br>
<p>1977: First alpine-style ascent of the Eiger Direct (Harlin Route) by Alex MacIntyre (UK) and Tobin Sorenson (US).</p><br>
<p>1977: First Dutch ascent of the face by Ronald Naar and Bas Gresnigt.</p><br>
<p>1978: First Polish winter ascent of the face by Andrzej Czok, Janusz Skorek and Jan Wolf, the fastest winter ascent at that time.</p><br>
<p>1978: First winter solo ascent by Tsuneo Hasegawa.</p><br>
<h3>1980s</h3><br>
<p>1981: First British solo ascent of the face by Welsh climber Eric Jones, filmed by Leo Dickinson and released as Eiger Solo.</p><br>
<p>1981: 25 August: Swiss guide soloes the face in 8 hours and 30 minutes.</p><br>
<p>1982: Slovene soloes the face in 6 hours.</p><br>
<p>1982 First American winter ascent by Harry Kent and Keith Lober.</p><br>
<p>1983: 21 March–2 April (13 days on the wall): First winter solo ascent and new route on the face (the ideal direttissima) by Slovak.</p><br>
<p>1983: 27 July: Austrian soloes the face without a rope in 4 hours and 50 minutes, almost halving Bühler&#39;s time.</p><br>
<p>1984: 21 July: Slovene Slavko (Miroslav) Svetičič. Classic route, solo climb in 8 hours.</p><br>
<p>1985: French climber soloes the north face in the first solo winter ascent in 10 hours.</p><br>
<p>1987: 11–12 March: French climber Christophe Profit soloes the famous Trilogy of north faces (the Eiger, the Matterhorn, and the Grandes Jorasses) in one outing (enchainement) of 42 hours and in winter conditions.</p><br>
<p>1987: Second British solo ascent of the face by Phil Thornhill.</p><br>
<p>1988: Alison Hargreaves climbs the face while nearly six months&#39; pregnant.</p><br>
<h3>1990s</h3><br>
<p>1990: 14–15 January: Slavko Svetičič solo climbs the Harlin route in 26 hours, its first winter ascent.</p><br>
<p>1991: Jeff Lowe solos Metanoia on the north face in winter without bolts.</p><br>
<p>1992: 9 March: First female solo ascent by Catherine Destivelle (France), in 17 hours.</p><br>
<p>1997: Benedetto Salaroli, aged 72, becomes the oldest man to ascend the face, climbing it in a single day with guides Ueli Buhler and Kobi Reichen.</p><br>
<h3>2000s</h3><br>
<p>2003: 24 March: breaks Bubendorfer&#39;s record by ten minutes, climbing the face in 4 hours and 40 minutes.</p><br>
<p>2007: 9 April: Christophe Profit guides the face for the tenth time.</p><br>
<p>2007: 21 February: Ueli Steck (Switzerland) breaks Christoph Hainz&#39;s record, soloing the face in 3 hours and 54 minutes.</p><br>
<p>2008: 28 January: Swiss climbers and Simon Anthamatten set a new record for a team ascent (of the Heckmair route) climbing it in 6 hours and 50 minutes.</p><br>
<p>2008: 13 February: Ueli Steck breaks his own record, soloing the face in 2 hours, 47 minutes and 33 seconds.</p><br>
<p>2008: 23 February: Swiss climbers and Stephan Ruoss better the team record (Schäli and Anthamatten), climbing the Heckmair route in 6 hours, 10 minutes.</p><br>
<p>2008: 31 May: Ueli Steck is presented with the inaugural Eiger Award.</p><br>
<p>2008: 7 August: Dean Potter (US) free-solos Deep Blue Sea (5.12+) on the face, then BASE jumps from the top using an ultralight rig he wore during the climb.</p><br>
<p>2011: 20 April: Daniel Arnold (Switzerland) solos the face in 2 hours 28 minutes, using the fixed ropes on the Hinterstoisser Traverse. Arnold was 19 minutes faster than Ueli Steck in 2008, but Steck climbed the route entirely without aid and, unlike Arnold, completed the route in the official winter season.</p><br>
<p>2014: 14 March: Mark Salamon solos the face the on classic-route - the first Hungarian climber to make any solo ascent of the North Face.</p><br>
<p>2015: 29 August: Sasha DiGiulian becomes the first woman to free climb Magic Mushroom (7c+), one of the most difficult routes on the north face of the Eiger.</p><br>
<p>2015: 12 Nov: New team ascent record by Ueli Steck and Nicolas Hojac in 3 hours 46 minutes.</p><br>
<p>2015: 17 Nov: Ueli Steck climbs the Heckmair Route in 2 hours 22 minutes 50.7 seconds.</p><br>
<h2>Panorama</h2><br>
<h2>Books and films</h2><br>
<p>The 1959 book The White Spider by Heinrich Harrer describes the first successful ascent of the Eiger north face.</p><br>
<p>The 1972 novel The Eiger Sanction is an action/thriller novel by Rodney William Whitaker (writing under the pseudonym Trevanian), based around the climbing of the Eiger. This was then made into a 1975 film starring Clint Eastwood and George Kennedy. The Eiger Sanction film crew included very experienced mountaineers (e.g., John Cleare, Dougal Haston, and Hamish MacInnes, see Summit, 52, Spring 2010) as consultants, to ensure accuracy in the climbing footage, equipment and techniques.</p><br>
<p>The 1982 book Eiger, Wall of Death by Arthur Roth is an historical account of first ascents of the north face.</p><br>
<p>The 1982 book Traverse of The Gods by Bob Langley is a World War II spy thriller where a group escaping from Nazi Germany is trapped and the only possible exit route is via the Nordwand.</p><br>
<p>Eiger Dreams, a collection of essays by Jon Krakauer, begins with an account of Krakauer&#39;s own attempt to climb the north face.</p><br>
<p>The IMAX film The Alps features John Harlin IIIs climb up the north face in September 2005. Harlins father, John Harlin II, set out 40 years earlier to attempt a direct route (the direttissima) up the 6,000 ft face, the so-called "John Harlin route". At 1300 m, his rope broke, and he fell to his death. Composer James Swearingen created a piece named Eiger: Journey to the Summit in his memory.</p><br>
<p>The 2007 docu/drama film The Beckoning Silence featuring mountaineer Joe Simpson, recounting—with filmed reconstructions—the ill-fated 1936 expedition up the north face of the Eiger and how Heinrich Harrers book The White Spider inspired him to take up climbing. The film followed Simpsons eponymous 2003 book. Those playing the parts of the original climbing team were Swiss mountain guides Roger Schäli (Toni Kurz), Simon Anthamatten (Andreas Hinterstoisser), Dres Abegglen (Willy Angerer) and Cyrille Berthod (Edi Rainer). The documentary won an Emmy Award the subsequent year.</p><br>
<p>The 2008 German historical fiction film Nordwand is based on the 1936 attempt to climb the Eiger north face. The film is about the two German climbers, Toni Kurz and Andreas Hinterstoisser, involved in a competition with an Austrian duo to be the first to scale the north face of Eiger.</p><br>
<p>The 2010 documentary Eiger: Wall of Death by Steve Robinson.</p><br>
<p>Mount Temple is a mountain in Banff National Park of the Canadian Rockies of Alberta, Canada.</p><br>
<p>Mt. Temple is located in the Bow River Valley between Paradise Creek and Moraine Creek and is the highest peak in the Lake Louise area. The peak dominates the western landscape along the Trans-Canada Highway from Castle Junction to Lake Louise.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The mountain was named by George Mercer Dawson in 1884 after Sir Richard Temple who visited the Canadian Rockies that same year. Mt. Temple was the first 11,000 ft peak to be climbed in the Canadian segment of the Rocky Mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Tragedy</h2><br>
<p>On July 11, 1955, in one of Canada&#39;s most tragic mountaineering accidents, seven American male teenagers were killed on the southwest ridge route. A warm summer day had caused several nearby avalanches. They finally decided to turn back and during the descent, an avalanche swept 10 members of the party 200 m down the snowfield through a bottleneck of rocks. Unfortunately, the entire party only had one ice axe among them and were not well prepared for the seriousness of the route. The party had also gone up the route without either of their two group leaders.</p><br>
<p>On Sept. 25, 2015, Jen Kunze, an avid runner and hiker from Calgary, Ab. fell to her death.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing routes</h2><br>
<p>The mountain offers several routes for climbers and the normal route on the southwest side offers a moderate class scrambling route. See Scrambles in the Canadian Rockies for a description of that route. Climbers must be careful on this "easy" climb due to falling rock and if lost on the route, steep cliffs and avalanches.</p><br>
<p>South-West Ridge (Normal Route) (I)</p><br>
<p>By late July or early August, the southwest ridge is generally free of snow and is a moderate scramble for experienced parties. An ice axe is recommended for the summit.</p><br>
<p>East Ridge (IV 5.7)</p><br>
<p>North Face, Elzinga/Miller (IV 5.7)</p><br>
<p>North East Buttress, Greenwood/Jones (III, 5.7, A3 or 5.10) One of the most secure routes on the north side of the mountain. Free climbed in August 1983, René Boisselle and Bernard Faure.</p><br>
<p>Current route conditions can be obtained from a climbing warden at the park information centre in Lake Louise. A climber&#39;s log outside the centre may also provide comments from other climbers.</p><br>
<h3>First Ascent</h3><br>
<p>August 17, 1894 Walter D. Wilcox, Samuel E. S. Allen and Lewis Frissell</p><br>
<p>Chinkultic, sometimes Chincultic, is a moderate-size archeological ruin in the state of Chiapas, Mexico, some 56 km from Comitán, the nearest city. It is part of the Lagunas de Montebello National Park.</p><br>
<p>This pre-Columbian city belongs to the ancient Maya civilization. The city flourished in the Maya Classic Era, from about the 3rd through the 9th century. Most of the sculptures were produced in the last 300 years of this era, with hieroglyphic inscriptions dating from 591 to 897. Post-Classic-Era occupation of the site continued until the 13th century, after which it was abandoned.</p><br>
<p>The site has some step-pyramids and some 200 smaller buildings, most in undisturbed ruin. Chinkultic has carved stone stelae depicting the site&#39;s rulers. The site contains a court for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame, which a marker tells us was dedicated on 21 May 591.</p><br>
<p>The first published account of the site was made by Edward Seler in the late 19th century. A detailed description of the site was made by Enrique Juan Palacios in 1926.</p><br>
<p>The first archeological investigations of the site were conducted in 1966 under the direction of Stephan F. de Borhegyi of the Public Museum of Milwaukee, Wisconsin.</p><br>
<p>Starting in 1970, some further excavations and restorations of a few buildings was conducted by Mexican government archeologists, who also dredged some artifacts from the site&#39;s cenote or natural well known as Agua Azul ("Blue Water"). The cenote gives the site its Maya language name; Chinkultic meaning "stepped-cenote".</p><br>
<p>The site is open for tourism visits, although it is not one of the more commonly visited Maya sites.</p><br>
<p>Olynthus  was an ancient city of Chalcidice, built mostly on two flat-topped hills 30–40m in height, in a fertile plain at the head of the Gulf of Torone, near the neck of the peninsula of Pallene, about 2.5 kilometers from the sea, and about 60 stadia  from Poteidaea. Artefacts found during the excavations of the site are exhibited in the Archaeological Museum of Olynthos.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Olynthus, son of Heracles, or the river god Strymon, was considered the mythological founder of the town. The South Hill bore a small Neolithic settlement; was abandoned during the Bronze Age; and was resettled in the 7th century BC. Subsequently, the town was captured by the Bottiaeans, a Thracian tribe ejected from Macedon by Alexander I.</p><br>
<p>Following the Persian defeat at Salamis (480 BC) and with Xerxes having been escorted to the Hellespont by his general Artabazus, the Persian army spent the winter of the same year in Thessaly and Macedonia. The Persian authority in the Balkans "must have" significantly decreased at the time, which encouraged the inhabitants of the Pallene peninsula to break away. Suspecting that a revolt against the Great King was meditated, in order to control the situation, Artabazus captured Olynthus, which was thought to be disloyal, and killed its inhabitants. The town had priorly been given to Kritovoulos from Toroni and to a fresh population consisting of Greeks from the neighboring region of Chalcidice, who had been exiled by the Macedonians (Herod. viii. 127). Though Herodotus reports that Artabazus slaughtered them, Boetiaeans continued to live in the area.</p><br>
<p>Olynthus became a Greek polis, but it remained insignificant (in the quota-lists of the Delian League it appears as paying on the average 2 talents, as compared with 6 to 15 paid by Scione, 6 to 15 by Mende, 6 to 12 by Toroni, and 3 to 6 by Sermylia from 454 to 432).</p><br>
<p>In 432 King Perdiccas II of Macedon encouraged several nearby coastal towns to disband and remove their population to Olynthus, preparatory to a revolt to be led by Potidaea against Athens (Thuc. 1.58). This synoecism (συνοικισμός) was effected, though against Perdiccas&#39;s wishes the contributing cities were preserved. This increase in population led to the settlement of the North Hill, which was developed on a Hippodamian grid plan. In 423 Olynthus became the head of a formal Chalkidian League, occasioned by the synoecism or by the beginning of the Peloponnesian War and fear of Athenian attack. During the Peloponnesian war it formed a base for Brasidas in his expedition of 424 and refuge for the citizens of Mende and Poteidaea that had rebelled against the Athenians (Thu. ii, 70).</p><br>
<p>After the end of the Peloponnesian War the development of the league was rapid and ended consisting of 32 cities. About 393 we find it concluding an important treaty with Amyntas III of Macedon (the father of Philip II), and by 382 it had absorbed most of the Greek cities west of the Strymon, and had even got possession of Pella, the chief city in Macedon. (Xenophon, Hell. V. 2, 12).</p><br>
<p>In this year Sparta was induced by an embassy from Acanthus and Apollonia, which anticipated conquest by the league, to send an expedition against Olynthus. After three years of indecisive warfare Olynthus consented to dissolve the confederacy (379). It is clear, however, that the dissolution was little more than formal, as the Chalcidians ("Χαλκιδῆς ἀπò Θρᾴκης") appear, only a year or two later, among the members of the Athenian naval confederacy of 378-377. Twenty years later, in the reign of Philip, the power of Olynthus is asserted by Demosthenes to have been much greater than before the Spartan expedition. The town itself at this period is spoken of as a city of the first rank (πóλις μuρἰανδρος), and the league included thirty-two cities.</p><br>
<p>When the Social War broke out between Athens and its allies (357), Olynthus was at first in alliance with Philip. Subsequently, in alarm at the growth of his power, it concluded an alliance with Athens. Olynthus made three embassies to Athens, the occasions of Demostheness three Olynthiac Orations. On the third, the Athenians sent soldiers from among its citizens. After Philip had deprived Olynthus of the rest of the League, by force and by the treachery of sympathetic factions, he besieged Olynthus in 348. The siege was short; he bought Olynthuss two principal citizens, Euthycrates and Lasthenes, who betrayed the city to him. He then looted and razed the city and sold its population&mdash;including the Athenian garrison&mdash;into slavery. According to the latest researches only a small area of the North Hill was ever re-occupied, up to 318, before Cassander forced the population to move in his new city of Kassandreia.</p><br>
<p>Though the city was extinguished, through subsequent centuries there would be men scattered through the Hellenistic world who were called Olynthians.</p><br>
<h2>Topography and archaeology</h2><br>
<p>The city of Olynthus lies in the hill named Megale Toumba near the village of Myriophyto. The probable site of Olynthus was identified as early as 1902. Between 1914 and 1916 plans were made for an excavation by the British School at Athens, but these fell through.</p><br>
<p>The ancient city extends over two hills that detach from a small coulee and possess an area ca. 1500 m long and 400 m in width. Excavations began in 1928. Prof. David Moore Robinson of Johns Hopkins University, under the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, conducted four seasons of work: in 1928, 1931, 1934, and 1939. The results of the excavations were digested into fourteen folio volumes. The excavation had uncovered more than five hectares of Olynthus and a portion of Mecyberna (the harbor of Olynthus). On the North Hill this hurried pace proved relatively harmless due to the simple stratigraphy of an area of the city occupied only for 84 years and subjected to a sudden, final destruction; but the data from the South Hill was badly muddled. Nonetheless the work was excellent for its time, and remains supremely valuable. Much of the stratigraphy of the North Hill has been reconstructed by Nicholas Cahill (University of Wisconsin). The site is now in the charge of Dr. Julia Vokotopoulou, and the XVI Ephorate of Classical Antiquities.</p><br>
<p>The Neolithic settlement is located in the edge of the southern hill and was dated in the 3rd millennium BC. The houses were built by stone blocks and had one or two rooms. The pottery that was found was the typical of that period comprising monochrome ceramic vases. The end of this rural settlement was abrupt and is placed around the 1st millennium.</p><br>
<p>The archaic city was built under a provincially urban planning and extended throughout the whole south hill. Two avenues were revealed along the eastern and western edges of the hill that intersected with crossing streets. Along the south avenue shops and small houses were found while the administrative part was located in the north part of the hill, where the agora and a deanery were found.</p><br>
<p>The classical city was established on the much larger north hill and to its eastern slope. The excavations, which cover only the 1/10 of the city&#39;s total area, have revealed a Hippodamian grid plan. Two large avenues were discovered, with an amplitude of 7 meters, along with vertical and horizontal streets that divided the urban area into city blocks. Each one had ten houses with two floors and a paved yard. Very important for the archaeological research are considered the rich villas that were excavated in the aristocratic suburb of the city located in the eastern part of the north hill since there was found some of the earliest floor mosaics in Greek art.</p><br>
<p>Both the archaic and classical city were protected by an extended land wall. Parts of the foundations of the wall were revealed in the north hill and elsewhere, but they are not enlightening on which method was followed for their construction. Archaeologists suppose that it was built with sun-dried bricks with a stone base, but it&#39;s difficult to tell, since the city was literally leveled by Phillip.</p><br>
<p>As it concerns the public buildings, the agora is placed in the south edge of the north hill, near the eastern gate, along with a public fountain, an arsenal and the city&#39;s parliament building (Βουλευτήριον). There is a small museum featuring artifacts recovered from Olynthus, and the whole archaeological site is open to public tours during daylight hours.</p><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Callisthenes (c. 360-328 BC), historian</p><br>
<p>Ephippus (4th century BC), historian</p><br>
<p>Euphantus (4th century BC), philosopher</p><br>
<h2>Modern Olynthos</h2><br>
<p>The modern city, formerly Myriophyto, now called Olynthos or Nea Olynthos, sits on a small plateau on the western side of the river Olynthios or Resetenikia (in ancient times known as Sandanus), across from the ruins of the ancient city.</p><br>
<p>Uffington Castle is an early Iron Age  univallate hill fort in Oxfordshire, England. It covers about 32,000 square metres and is surrounded by two earth banks separated by a ditch with an entrance in the western end. A second entrance in the eastern end was apparently blocked up a few centuries after it was built.</p><br>
<p>The original defensive ditch was V-shaped with a small box rampart in front and a larger one behind it. Timber posts stood on the ramparts. Later the ditch was deepened and the extra material dumped on top of the ramparts to increase their size. A parapet wall of sarsen stones lined the top of the innermost rampart. It is very close to the Uffington White Horse.</p><br>
<h2>Excavations</h2><br>
<p>Excavations have indicated that it was probably built in the 7th or 8th century BC and continued to be occupied throughout the Iron Age. Isolated postholes were found inside the fort but no evidence of buildings. Pottery, loom weights and animal bone finds suggest some form of occupation however. The most activity appears to have been during the Roman period as the artefacts recovered from the upper fills of the ditch attest. The ramparts were remodelled to provide more entrances and a shrine seems to have been built in the early 4th century AD. Two oblong mounds, one containing 46 Romano-British burials and one containing eight Saxon burials, lie nearby.</p><br>
<h2>The Ridgeway</h2><br>
<p>An ancient track passes by the northern entrance to the hill fort, and is known as The Ridgeway. It links to the Icknield Way at the Goring Gap, and passes close to Avebury before heading south across Salisbury Plain. It also passes very close to a Neolithic chambered long barrow Waylands Smithy about a mile to the west.</p><br>
<h2>Protection</h2><br>
<p>The hillfort is a Scheduled Ancient Monument, and was included in the Ancient Monuments Protection Act 1882 as one of the first 68 sites in Britain and Ireland to receive legal protection. Along with the Uffington White Horse on the slopes below the ramparts, it is in the care of English Heritage.</p><br>
<p>The Pripyat River or Prypiat River  is a river in Eastern Europe, approximately 761 km long. It flows east through Ukraine, Belarus, and Ukraine again, draining into the Dnieper.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>The Pripyat passes through the exclusion zone established around the site of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster. The city of Prypiat, Ukraine (population 45,000) was completely evacuated after the Chernobyl disaster.</p><br>
<p>Pripyat has catchment area of 121,000 km&sup2, 50,900 km&sup2; of which are in Belarus. 495 km of the whole river length lies within territory of Belarus.</p><br>
<h2>Name etymology</h2><br>
<p>Max Vasmer in his etymological dictionary notes that the historical name of the river mentioned in the earliest East Slavic document, Primary Chronicle is Pripet (Припеть) and cites the opinion of other linguists that the name meant "tributary", comparing with Greek and Latin roots. He also rejects some opinions which were improperly based on the stem -пять, rather than original -петь.</p><br>
<p>It might also derive from the local word pripech used for a river with sandy banks.</p><br>
<p>Armory Square is a small neighborhood on the west side of Downtown Syracuse, New York. It began life as a busy commercial and industrial area just to the west of the central city. After World War II, Syracuse&#39;s central city became less and less populated as more housing and business facilities were built in the suburbs. In the 1980s, plans were first made to transform the languishing district into a small shopping/arts/nightlife district surrounding the former Syracuse Armory. These plans came to fruition during the 1990s, when new stores and restaurants opened, and several new buildings were constructed in a compatible style to the middle and late 1800s and early 1900s architecture dominating the district.</p><br>
<h2>Current day</h2><br>
<p>Today, Armory Square is the home of some of Syracuses better restaurants, at least two coffeehouses, a radio station company, dozens of small shops selling everything from band instruments to used records to womens clothing, several bars and nightclubs, Urban Outfitters, Armory Massage Therapy, a newly restored upscale hotel, and two tattoo parlors. A number of professional firms are also located in Armory Square, including Eric Mower and Associates, O&#39;Brien & Gere, and the Sugarman Law Firm. The area is popular with students from Syracuse University and Le Moyne College.</p><br>
<p>Its borders are generally considered to be the circular road around the armory (Jefferson Street) to the south, Onondaga Creek to the west, Washington Street to the north, and Clinton Street to the east.</p><br>
<p>Armory Square is also home to the Shot Clock Monument.</p><br>
<p>A paved multi-use trail, the Onondaga Creekwalk, connects the neighborhood with Onondaga Lake.</p><br>
<p>In June 2009 the book was published by Arcadia Publishing. Written by Robert J. Podfigurny and George W. Curry, the book contains side by side historic and current pictures of historic buildings in Armory Square along with information about the buildings, architecture, past tenants, and more. Historic pictures were contributed in part by the.</p><br>
<h2>Armory Square Historic District</h2><br>
<p>Forty-six industrial and commercial buildings make up the Armory Square Historic District. West Fayette Street is the northern boundary of the district, the rear property lines of the buildings on South Clinton Street the eastern boundary. The southern boundary is a raised railroad track, while the western boundary includes the buildings on Walton Street. The buildings in the district include the Armory, a railroad station, hotels, warehouses and commercial buildings. The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1984.</p><br>
<h3>Contributing properties</h3><br>
<p>Little Solsbury Hill  is a small flat-topped hill and the site of an Iron Age hill fort. It is located above the village of Batheaston in Somerset, England. The hill rises to 625 ft above the River Avon, which is just over 1 mi to the south, and gives views of the city of Bath and the surrounding area. It is within the Cotswolds Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.</p><br>
<p>The hill is one of several possible locations of the Battle of Badon and shows the remains of a medieval field system. In the 19th century part of the hill was quarried. It was acquired by the National Trust in 1930. The hill was the inspiration of the Peter Gabriel song "Solsbury Hill" which was recorded in 1977. A small turf maze was cut into the turf by protesters during the widening of the A46 in 1994.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>It is sometimes misspelled as Salisbury, or Solisbury, perhaps because of confusion with Salisbury Plain (a plateau in southern England), or the city of Salisbury. Salisbury and Solsbury can be difficult to distinguish in speech, as Salisbury is often pronounced "Saulsbury" and sometimes the "a" in "Salisbury" is pronounced as an "o", and the "i" is elided, making the pronunciations of the two words practically identical. The name, "Solsbury", may be derived from the Celtic god Sulis, a deity worshipped at the thermal spring in nearby Bath.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The hill is formed in layers from a variety of sedimentary rocks of Jurassic age. In common with the Cotswold plateau to the north, the summit is formed from rocks ascribed to the Chalfield Oolite Formation. The oolite together with the Fuller&#39;s Earth Formation which underlies it, forms a part of the Great Oolite Group of rocks of Bathonian age. Beneath these are, successively, Bajocian age limestones of the Inferior Oolite Group and sandstones of the Bridport Sand Formation. The last-named unit forms a part of the Lias Group of rocks of Toarcian age. Beneath all of these is the relatively thick Charmouth Mudstone Formation sequence rising from the edge of the valley floor alluvium. All faces of the hill are subject to large areas of landslip.</p><br>
<p>The 625 ft high hill is just over 1 mi to the north of the River Avon.</p><br>
<h2>Hill fort</h2><br>
<p>Hill forts developed in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age, roughly the start of the first millennium BC. The reason for their emergence in Britain, and their purpose, has been a subject of debate. It has been argued that they could have been military sites constructed in response to invasion from continental Europe, sites built by invaders, or a military reaction to social tensions caused by an increasing population and consequent pressure on agriculture.</p><br>
<p>Solsbury hill was an Iron Age hill fort occupied between 300 BC and 100 BC, comprising a triangular area enclosed by a single univallate rampart, faced inside and out with well-built dry stone walls and infilled with rubble. The rampart was 20 ft wide and the outer face was at least 12 ft high. The top of the hill was cleared down to the bedrock, then substantial huts were built with wattle and daub on a timber-frame. After a period of occupation, some of the huts were burnt down, the rampart was overthrown, and the site was abandoned, never to be reoccupied. This event is probably part of the Belgic invasion of Britain in the early part of the 1st century BC.</p><br>
<h2>Later history</h2><br>
<p>The hill is near the Fosse Way Roman Road as it descends Bannerdown hill into Batheaston on its way to Aquae Sulis. Solsbury Hill is a possible location of the Battle of Badon, fought between the Britons (under the legendary King Arthur) and the Saxons c. 496, mentioned by the chroniclers Gildas and Nennius. The hilltop also shows the remains of a medieval or post medieval field system.</p><br>
<p>The hill also has two disused quarries, one quarry listed on the North West side on an 1911 map, and another one listed as an old quarry on the West side in 1885–1900. It was acquired by the National Trust in 1930. People protesting against the building of an A46 bypass road cut a small turf maze into the hill, during the construction of the bypass in the mid-1990s. In one day of protests, 11 people, including George Monbiot, were hospitalised as a result of beatings by the security guards.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>The plants and animals which live on Solsbury Hill reflect the habitat provided by grassland overlying the limestone rock beneath. Specialist plants and animals, some of which are rare species, have adapted to the calcareous grassland. Most of the landscape is largely unaffected by agriculture as shown by the yellow meadow ant. Examples of plant species found include bird&#39;s foot trefoil, vetches, greater knapweed, harebells, yarrow (Achillea millefolium), and scabious. It is one of a series of flower-rich habitats, which Avon Wildlife Trust are trying to link together. The plants attract a range of insects including: the six-spotted burnet moth, hummingbird hawk-moth and a number of butterflies including chalkhill blues. A small population of common buzzard (Buteo buteo) nest in the area. Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), badger and red fox are also seen. The skylark also nests on the hill.</p><br>
<h2>Cultural references</h2><br>
<p>Solsbury Hill is also the inspiration for rock musician Peter Gabriels first solo single in 1977. A recording of the natural sounds on Solsbury Hill forms the track "A Quiet Moment" on Peter Gabriels 2011 album, New Blood, which precedes the orchestral version of his song.</p><br>
<p>The Warlord Chronicles, a historical fiction trilogy of books, places the site of Mount Badon at Solsbury Hill.</p><br>
<p>Durdle Door  is a natural limestone arch on the Jurassic Coast near Lulworth in Dorset, England.</p><br>
<p>It is privately owned by the Welds, a family who owns 12,000 acre in Dorset in the name of the Lulworth Estate. It is open to the public. The name Durdle is derived from the Old English thirl meaning bore or drill.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The form of the coastline around Durdle Door is controlled by its geology—both by the contrasting hardnesses of the rocks, and by the local patterns of faults and folds. The arch has formed on a concordant coastline where bands of rock run parallel to the shoreline. The rock strata are almost vertical, and the bands of rock are quite narrow. Originally a band of resistant Portland limestone ran along the shore, the same band that appears one mile along the coast forming the narrow entrance to Lulworth Cove. Behind this is a 120 m band of weaker, easily eroded rocks, and behind this is a stronger and much thicker band of chalk, which forms the Purbeck Hills. These steeply dipping rocks are part of the geological structure known as the Lulworth crumple, itself part of a broader monocline (a kinked type of geological fold) produced by the building of the Alps during the mid-Cenozoic.</p><br>
<p>The limestone and chalk are in closer proximity at Durdle Door than at Swanage, 10 mi to the east, where the distance is over 2 mi.</p><br>
<p>Around this part of the coast nearly all of the limestone has been removed by sea erosion, whilst the remainder forms the small headland which includes the arch. Erosion at the western end of the limestone band has resulted in the arch formation. UNESCO teams monitor the condition of both the arch and adjacent beach.</p><br>
<p>The 120 m isthmus which joins the limestone to the chalk is made of a 50 m band of Portland limestone, a narrow and compressed band of Cretaceous Wealden clays and sands, and then narrow bands of greensand and sandstone.</p><br>
<p>In Man O War Bay, the small bay immediately east of Durdle Door, the band of Portland and Purbeck limestone has not been entirely eroded away, and is visible above the waves as Man OWar Rocks. Similarly, offshore to the west, the eroded limestone outcrop forms a line of small rocky islets called (from east to west) The Bull, The Blind Cow, The Cow, and The Calf.</p><br>
<p>As the coastline in this area is generally an eroding landscape, the cliffs are subject to occasional rockfalls and landslides; a particularly large slide occurred just to the east of Durdle Door in April 2013, resulting in destruction of part of the South West Coast Path.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>There is a dearth of early written records about the arch, though it has kept a name given to it probably over a thousand years ago. In the late eighteenth century there is a description of the "magnificent arch of Durdle-rock Door", and early nineteenth-century maps called it Duddledoor and Durdle or Dudde Door. In 1811 the first Ordnance Survey map of the area named it as Dirdale Door. Durdle is derived from the Old English thirl, meaning to pierce, bore or drill, which in turn derives from thyrel, meaning hole. Similar names in the region include Durlston Bay and Durlston Head further east, where a coastal stack suggests the existence of an earlier arch, and the Thurlestone, an arched rock in the neighbouring county of Devon to the west. The Door part of the name probably maintains its modern meaning, referring to the arched shape of the rock; in the late nineteenth century there is reference to it being called the "Barn-door", and is described as being "sufficiently high for a good-sized sailing boat to pass through it."</p><br>
<h2>In literature and popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Music videos have been filmed at Durdle Door, including parts of Tears for Fears "Shout", Billy Oceans "Loverboy", and Cliff Richards "Saviours Day".</p><br>
<p>The landscape around Durdle Door has been used in scenes in several films, including Wilde (1997) starring Stephen Fry, Nanny McPhee starring Emma Thompson, the 1967 production of Far From The Madding Crowd (the latter also filmed around nearby Scratchy Bottom), and the Bollywood film Housefull 3.</p><br>
<p>Ron Dawsons childrens story Scary Bones meets the Dinosaurs of the Jurassic Coast creates a myth of how Durdle Door came to be, as an undiscovered dinosaur called Durdle Doorus is magically transformed into rock.</p><br>
<p>Dorset-born Arthur Moule, a friend of Thomas Hardy and missionary to China, wrote these lines about Durdle Door for his 1879 book of poetry Songs of heaven and home, written in a foreign land:</p><br>
